19th Century Spain: Cultural Shifts, Education, and the Rise of Media
Item 1: Cultural Transformations
In the early nineteenth century, Romanticism expanded in Spain, connected to the revival of Catalan, Galician, and Basque literature. In Catalonia, the Renaissance language became the symbol of the country. Basque works often had folkloric or historical-legendary themes. In Galicia, the Rexurdimento claimed the recovery of language and historical past.
From 1840, the realist aesthetic imposed a spirit of observation and description of reality. Realism was a response to the rise of the bourgeoisie; their values and concerns were recurring themes in literature. In the late nineteenth century, Modernism, a cultural and artistic movement of European origin, aimed to create something fresh and refined. Along with this reform came the impact of the 1898 crisis. A generation of intellectuals concerned about exposing the causes of the disaster gave rise to Regeneracionismo, seeking a solution to the moral, social, and political crisis.
Strongly influenced by the Regeneracionistas, the Generation of ’98, a group of young intellectuals and scholars, sought to define Spanish identity, promoting broad debate on the nature of being Spanish.
Changes in Mentality
During the nineteenth century, the nobility and the church maintained power and social influence, but new bourgeois habits and social forms transformed traditional attitudes. A sector of liberalism advocated for secularizing public life. By the end of the century, part of the working class began to express anticlerical attitudes. The bourgeoisie in big cities flaunted their power and wealth in casinos and social circles. Urban classes enjoyed bullfights, festivals, and dances, while workers gathered in taverns and founded ateneos obreros (workers’ associations). The role of women remained subordinate to men, deprived of legal or political rights.
Education
At the start of the nineteenth century, Spain, a primarily agrarian society, had high illiteracy rates. Southern schools were poorly equipped compared to those in the north and central regions. During this century, freedom of expression and academic freedom increased.
Different social classes experienced the cultural boom differently:
- The popular classes: Partly isolated due to illiteracy.
- The bourgeoisie: Held two positions: an elitist group with liberal rationalist tendencies (favoring free education) and a regionalist group adopting a populist and democratizing tone.
- The church: Entered the educational sphere, targeting the middle class with educational institutions. Illiteracy rates dropped thanks to legislation like the Pidal and Moyano laws.
Pidal Plan (1845)
Provided education in three levels: basic education by teachers supported by municipalities, public secondary education in schools, and higher education.
Moyano Plan (1857)
Continued the division into three levels, mandating free and compulsory primary education and creating teacher training colleges. Krausist thought was introduced in Spain, leading to the foundation of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Education Institution). Krausism advocated rationalism, liberalism, and the principles of free thought and ethical and moral stances. The Free Education Institution, founded in 1876, reacted against the control over critical thinking imposed by the first government of Cánovas. The ILE aimed to renew secondary and university education based on advanced European teaching methods.
Starting in Madrid with secondary education, the ILE expanded to early primary education and inspired new institutions like the Board for Further Studies and the Student Residence. Spanish science faced controversy, lagging behind Europe and experiencing intense ideological conflict between religion and science.
Press
Different media outlets reflected ideological attachments, many serving as mouthpieces for political parties or ideological currents within Spanish society. In the nineteenth century, freedom of the press allowed for its development, becoming the principal organ of various political movements. The press expanded, becoming a key instrument in the relationship between citizens and power. Intellectuals writing in the press influenced public opinion.
This began in the reign of Fernando VII. During Isabel II’s reign, notable publications included El Liberal, La Guardia Nacional, El Eco de la Clase Obrera, and El Cohete. With the Restoration came publications like La Emancipación (Socialist), El Socialista (weekly), La Emancipación Hispanoamericana, and Diario de Barcelona, La Vanguardia, and La Veu.
Humorous and Satirical Newspapers
The freedom ushered in by the 1868 revolution led to an extraordinary flowering of satirical newspapers, especially humorous weeklies. These publications offered intelligent, clear, and critical perspectives on nineteenth-century politics. They employed cartoon caricature and criticism, sharp humor, and devastating satire, conveying messages simply to an audience that understood illustrations or caricatures better than dense political articles. Notable examples include La Risa, L’Esquella de la Torratxa, and El Flaco.