19th Century Spain: From Monarchy to Revolution
Charles IV and the French Revolution
The war between Spain and Revolutionary France began in 1793 and lasted until 1795. Initially, the French were defeated and forced to sign a treaty. However, French occupation of several Spanish cities led to unrest. The Aranjuez uprising in 1808, fueled by public discontent with France and the weakness of Charles IV, resulted in his son Ferdinand becoming King Ferdinand VII. Napoleon exploited the situation, kidnapping the royal family and installing his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king.
The War of Independence (1808-1814)
The popular revolt of 1808 marked the start of the War of Independence. The Spanish, aided by the British, fought against the French forces. Napoleon’s campaign in Russia weakened his hold on Spain, allowing the Spanish and British to launch counter-attacks. The war ended with the Treaty of Valençay and the return of Ferdinand VII. During the power vacuum, governing boards emerged, including the Supreme Central Junta and the Cortes of Cádiz. The Cortes, comprised mostly of liberals, drafted the Constitution of 1812, which established national sovereignty, separation of powers, and universal male suffrage.
Ferdinand VII and the Return to Absolutism
Upon his return in 1814, Ferdinand VII abolished the Constitution and reinstated the Old Regime, imprisoning many liberals. However, the 1820 pronunciamiento led by Colonel Riego forced Ferdinand to accept the 1812 Constitution, hold elections, and release political prisoners. This liberal period was short-lived, as an absolutist coup in 1823, supported by the Holy Alliance, restored Ferdinand’s absolutist rule.
The First Carlist War (1833-1839)
Ferdinand VII’s death in 1833 triggered a dynastic crisis. The Salic Law prevented female inheritance, but Ferdinand had issued the Pragmatic Sanction allowing his daughter Isabella to inherit. This led to the First Carlist War, a conflict between Isabella’s supporters (liberals) and those of Ferdinand’s brother, Carlos (absolutists). The Carlists, strong in the Basque Country, Navarre, Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, sought to preserve traditional values and provincial autonomy. The war ended with Isabella’s victory.
The Reign of Isabella II (1833-1868)
Isabella II’s reign was marked by political instability and conflict between moderate and progressive liberals. During her minority, her mother Maria Cristina served as regent. The progressive reforms, including the desamortización (seizure of church lands), led to conflict. General Espartero’s authoritarian rule was followed by the declaration of Isabella II as queen at age 13. The moderate-dominated government approved the 1845 Constitution. The Vicalvarada uprising of 1854 brought the progressives back to power, but economic crisis and protests led to their removal. The final years of Isabella’s reign were plagued by scandal and authoritarianism, culminating in the 1868 revolution that deposed her.
The Turbulent Years (1868-1874)
Following Isabella’s deposition, General Serrano became regent while a search for a new king commenced. Amadeo of Savoy, an Italian democrat, was chosen but faced opposition from various factions. Amadeo abdicated amidst the Cuban Revolution and the Third Carlist War. The First Republic, proclaimed in 1873, faced numerous challenges, including the Cuban War and the Third Carlist War, and was overthrown in a coup by General Pavia after just eleven months.
The Restoration (1874-1900)
Following another brief period of rule by Serrano, Isabella’s son, Alfonso XII, was proclaimed king, ushering in the Restoration. The 1876 Constitution established a constitutional monarchy with two main parties, the Conservatives and the Liberals, alternating in power under Cánovas del Castillo and Sagasta, respectively. This system, while providing some stability, excluded other political forces like anarchists, socialists, and nationalists.
The Basque Country in the 19th Century
The Basque Country experienced significant tensions during this period. Disagreements over the construction of a new port in Bilbao exacerbated existing social divisions. The War of Independence further divided Basque society. The First Carlist War had a profound impact, with the Carlist leader Tomás de Zumalacárregui playing a key role. The eventual abolition of the Basque charters in 1876 marked a significant turning point. The industrial revolution transformed the Basque economy, particularly in Vizcaya, with the growth of the steel industry. These economic changes led to immigration and the rise of new political ideologies, including socialism and Basque nationalism, spearheaded by Sabino Arana.
The Spanish Economy in the 19th Century
Spain’s industrial revolution was delayed due to various factors, including limited raw materials, poor infrastructure, a largely impoverished population, the loss of colonies, and a lack of a robust domestic market. Industrialization was concentrated in certain regions, such as Catalonia (textiles) and the Basque Country (steel). The Spanish industry faced challenges related to low productivity and regional concentration. Despite these challenges, financial institutions like the stock market were established, and railway lines were expanded. Agriculture remained the dominant sector of the Spanish economy.