19th Century Spain: From Revolution to Restoration
Independence War (1808-1814)
Opposition to French Rule: The reign of Charles IV saw Spain enter into an alliance with France, leading to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which aimed to invade Portugal. However, French troops occupied Spanish cities, causing unrest among the population. Ferdinand, son of Charles IV, instigated the Mutiny of Aranjuez, leading to his ascension as Ferdinand VII. Napoleon exploited the situation, kidnapping the royal family and installing his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king.
Popular Uprising and War: On May 2, 1808, a popular uprising erupted in Madrid, marking the beginning of the War of Independence. This war was fought against the French and also involved internal conflict between those who supported the French (afrancesados) and those loyal to Ferdinand VII (fernandinos). Napoleon’s withdrawal of troops to fight in Russia, coupled with Spanish and English forces, led to the end of the war with the Treaty of Valencia, restoring Ferdinand VII to the throne.
The Restoration (1814-1874)
Return of Constitutional Monarchy
Alfonso XII and the Constitution of 1876: Alfonso XII became king, supporting a constitutional monarchy with a prime minister, Canovas del Castillo. This new political system aimed to replace the previous one and was based on a new constitution and the alternation of power. The Constitution of 1876 was designed to be conciliatory, satisfying both moderate and progressive factions.
The Turno Pacífico: The Turno system involved two parties alternating in power:
- The Conservatives, led by Canovas, defended the Church and social order.
- The Liberals, led by Sagasta, implemented significant social reforms.
Electoral Corruption: Both parties maintained power through electoral corruption. The king decided which party would form the government, and elections were rigged to ensure their victory. This involved the use of caciques (local bosses) who coerced the population to vote for their party, and manipulation of votes in cities if the results were unfavorable.
Opposition to the System: Several groups opposed the Turno system:
- Anarchists, concentrated in Catalonia and Andalusia, faced persecution for their attacks and formed the CNT (National Confederation of Labor).
- Socialists, led by Pablo Iglesias, founded the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) and the UGT (General Union of Workers).
- Nationalists in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia sought greater autonomy from the centralized state.
Ferdinand VII (1814-1833)
The Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)
Upon his return, Ferdinand VII, supported by loyalists, repealed the constitution and reforms, restoring the privileges of the clergy and nobility, effectively reinstating the Old Regime. Liberals were persecuted for six years, and their attempts to reinstate liberalism through pronouncements failed.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
A successful liberal pronouncement led by Colonel Riego proclaimed the constitution. Ferdinand VII was forced to swear allegiance to it, leading to free elections and the appointment of liberal officials. Reforms were restored, and the National Militia was formed. However, absolutists, supported by the king and several European countries, launched numerous coup attempts. The Holy Alliance sent troops (the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis) to Spain, restoring Ferdinand VII as absolute monarch.
End of Absolutism and the First Carlist War (1823-1840)
Ferdinand VII’s return to absolutism led to a significant internal crisis due to an empty treasury and the loss of the American empire. The king’s attempts to modernize the government angered the nobility, while liberals continued their pronouncements. A dynastic problem arose as Salic Law prevented women from inheriting the throne, and Ferdinand VII had no sons. He annulled the law to allow his daughter, Isabella, to reign. Many absolutists, including his brother Don Carlos, refused to accept this. Upon Ferdinand’s death, his widow ruled as regent for the young Isabella. Don Carlos declared himself king, sparking the First Carlist War. Liberals supported Isabella, while absolutists sided with the Carlists. The war lasted seven years and ended with the Carlists’ defeat at the Convention of Vergara.
Economic Development
Weak Industrial Revolution
Spain experienced limited economic transformation in the 19th century due to shortages of raw materials, lack of capital, and poor communications. The most modern industries were the Catalan textile and steel sectors. The first financial institutions were founded. The railroad was a significant development, but the wider gauge of the tracks compared to the rest of Europe hindered trade. New sectors like electricity, oil, and chemicals also emerged. However, Spanish industry faced challenges with competitiveness and the concentration of modern sectors in limited areas.
Liberation of the Land
Agriculture remained the primary economic sector. The main change was the liberation of land through two methods:
- Abolition of entail
- Secularization of Church lands
Two major confiscations occurred: the Mendizábal confiscation, affecting Church lands, and the Madoz confiscation, affecting lands owned by municipalities, hospitals, and schools. These measures allowed for the modernization of farming methods. However, much land remained in the hands of large landowners who employed outdated methods and impoverished laborers. This also led to the impoverishment of many farmers.