19th Century Spain: Society, Economy, and Colonialism
1. Population Growth
In the nineteenth century, the Spanish population increased, although less than in other European countries. This was due to lower mortality and maintained fertility.
- Decline in mortality
- Improved diet
- Disappearance of epidemics
- Improving hygiene
- Medical advances
2. Migratory Movements
- Rural exodus (to industrialized areas)
- Latin America (late nineteenth century)
3. Urbanization
As a result of the rural exodus, there was an increase in urbanization.
4. Liberal Land Reform
- Abolition of the feudal system
- Land redistribution
- Confiscation and change of ownership brought an increase in agricultural production
5. Weak Economic Development
- Low agricultural yields
- Impoverished rural population with limited purchasing power
- Unequal land distribution
6. Agricultural and Livestock Production
- Grain on the Plateau
- North: potatoes and corn
- Levante: rice and citrus
- Catalonia and Rioja: wines
- Andalucía: olives
- Livestock: increase in pig and sheep farming
7. Industrialization
A slow and incomplete process, lagging behind the advanced European countries. Starting with the Catalan textile industry. Factors that negatively influenced industrialization:
- Low market demand
- Crisis in energy sources (few usable watercourses and poor-quality coal)
- Distance from Spain’s most industrialized areas (difficulty acquiring raw materials)
- Transportation problems
- Economic protectionism (taxes or tariffs on foreign production)
8. Production
a) Mining
A very important sector. Key resources included lead in Linares and La Carolina, copper in Rio Tinto, mercury in Almadén, poor-quality coal in Asturias, and iron in Biscay.
b) Steel
Primarily located in Vizcaya. Consequently, there was business development in mechanical construction and shipbuilding. Also important to the development of the banking sector, providing major financial support to industry (Banco de Bilbao and Banco de Vizcaya).
c) New Sources of Energy
Electricity and oil began to be used in the late nineteenth century.
d) New Industries
Metallurgy appeared in Seville, Barcelona, the Basque Country, Asturias, and Galicia.
In the late nineteenth century, industry spread to other areas, though there was still a deeply unbalanced regional distribution of wealth.
9. Communications
a) Rail
Revolutionized communications. Lowered costs and accelerated the movement of people and goods. Increased the production of wood and glass. Large quantities of coal were extracted. Thousands of workers were hired. Large amounts of iron were produced for the construction of rails, locomotives, and wagons. The first line: Barcelona-Mataró. The second line: Madrid-Aranjuez. Characteristics:
- Lines formed a radial network
- The width of the track was different from the rest of Europe
- Lines were built through government concessions to private companies
- The State lacked sufficient financial resources
b) Tram
The expansion of cities and the increase in population necessitated the introduction of new means of transport. In 1871, the first tram lines were inaugurated in Barcelona and Madrid.
c) Telegraph
Invented in 1837, it transformed communications. The first line: Madrid-Irun (1855).
10. Imperialism and Colonialism
Concept
Imperialism is the attitude of a state seeking to dominate others through military force, economic or political means. During the last third of the nineteenth century, some European powers developed a policy of colonial expansion, managing and organizing huge colonial empires since the beginning of the century. This was a constant source of conflict that resulted in World War I.
11. Causes of Imperialism
a) Demographic
Between 1850 and 1900, the European population grew from 300 to 450 million people. The poor living conditions of the working class in industrialized countries encouraged many to seek a better life in the occupied territories.
b) Economic
- Search for new territories in which to invest excess capital (mainly in financing infrastructure like railways and major engineering works)
- Obtaining cheap and abundant raw materials and energy
- Establishing markets for industrial products
- Quest for cheap labor
c) Political
Powers sought colonial hegemony through military and commercial control of maritime and land routes.
d) Scientific and Technical
Throughout the nineteenth century, the exploration of the planet, begun in the fifteenth century, was completed. This was influenced by authors like Jules Verne, Kipling, and Jack London, who encouraged curiosity and adventure. Geographical societies played a significant role, helping to create new military or economic paths. Great rivers like the Nile were explored, and expeditions penetrated into Asia, reaching the Himalayas, Siberia, the Australian desert, and finally, in the twentieth century, the North and South Poles.
e) Ideological
Racist theories were developed from nationalist positions to justify territorial expansion. Sometimes, paternalistic racism supported the idea of the white man’s need to “rescue” indigenous peoples through education. Anglican, Catholic, and Protestant missionaries had a great impact on indigenous populations.
12. Organization of Colonial Empires
Colonial domination and organization took different forms:
a) Dominions (British)
The mother country gave great autonomy to colonies like Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
b) Colonies of Exploitation
The metropolis appointed a viceroy who ruled the colony.
c) Protectorates (French)
The metropolis maintained colonial institutions, but power resided with the colonizer.
13. Colonial Crises
As colonial expansion progressed, conflicts arose:
Africa
- Anglo-Boer War: British and Dutch settlers clashed in South Africa over gold and diamond deposits. The Boers remained under British rule but retained some autonomy.
- Fashoda Incident: French and British clashed in Sudan. The British gained control.
- Moroccan Conflict: Multiple powers had ambitions in Morocco. France benefited most.
Asia
- Opium Wars: Conflicts between China and the UK over the opium trade. China was forced to tolerate the trade and cede Hong Kong.
- Boxer Rebellion: Chinese resistance against European interference. The Boxers, a secret society, wanted to expel foreigners.
14. Consequences of Colonization
- Europeanization of colonies with the introduction of advancements, hygiene measures, and improved agricultural production, leading to decreased mortality and population increase.
- Establishment of schools and decreased illiteracy, but imposition of European lifestyle, religion, and language.
- Growth of plantations (cocoa, coffee, etc.) and imposition of a monetary and market economy.
- Deep social segregation.