19th Century Spain: Society, Economy, and Industrialization
1. Spanish Population in the 19th Century
1.1 Population Growth
Spain’s population grew from 11.5 million in 1797 to 18.5 million in 1900. This was due to declining mortality rates and sustained fertility. Increased agricultural production and improved diets contributed to lower mortality, along with advancements in hygiene and medicine. However, mortality remained higher in Spain compared to the rest of Europe.
1.2 Migration
Initially, migrants moved to cities like Madrid, Barcelona, and Vizcaya due to economic opportunities. Later, Spanish migration shifted towards Latin America.
1.3 Urban Growth
Between 1850 and 1900, several Spanish cities, including Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Malaga, and Zaragoza, experienced significant population growth. However, at the start of the 20th century, 70% of the population still resided in towns with less than 20,000 inhabitants.
2. Agricultural Changes
2.1 Liberal Land Reform
Liberal land reforms aimed to dismantle the old regime and introduce capitalist ownership and production. Feudalism was abolished, property was divided, and land was redistributed. The disenfranchised lands were acquired by the bourgeoisie or peasant farmers seeking to modernize and profit from their farms, leading to increased agricultural production. However, much of the land remained with its previous owners or officials with a rentier mentality, resulting in minimal changes.
2.2 Underdeveloped Agriculture
Despite land reforms, many peasants remained poor laborers. Limited capacity among farmers hindered industrialization. Large estates persisted in regions like Extremadura, Andalusia, and Castile, while smallholdings were prevalent in the northern sub-plateau and Galicia.
2.3 Cereal Dominance
Cereals were the primary crop in the 19th century. Low yields led to high prices compared to other countries, necessitating protectionist measures. Potatoes and corn were cultivated in northern Galicia, while rice and citrus fruits thrived in Mediterranean regions. Wine production expanded in Catalonia and La Rioja, and olive groves flourished in Andalusia. Oranges, wine, and olive oil became major export products.
3. Industrialization
3.1 Challenges to Spanish Industrialization
Several factors hampered industrialization in Spain: low purchasing power, lack of investment, absence of an industrial bourgeoisie, transportation problems due to poor roads and delayed railway development, limited energy sources, and Spain’s peripheral position, which made acquiring raw materials and selling products difficult.
3.2 The Steel Industry
Spain relied on tariffs to protect its industry from foreign competition. A strong steel industry emerged in the Basque Country in 1876, exporting high-quality iron to England in exchange for cheaper and better coking coal. The Basque industry diversified into shipbuilding and mechanical construction, supported by a growing banking sector.
3.3 The Textile Industry
Catalonia’s textile industry faced higher production costs due to imported coal from Asturias. Initially concentrated along the coast, many industries relocated inland to utilize hydraulic power, establishing commercial colonies.
4. Mining and Railways
4.1 Railway Construction
The 1855 Railway Law led to the development of an extensive railway network. However, the Spanish steel industry’s limited capacity meant that materials had to be imported. The radial structure of the network, centered in Madrid, and the wider gauge compared to European standards hindered trade, requiring goods to be transferred at the border.
5. Spanish Industry in the Late 19th Century
5.1 New Energy and Industries
The late 19th century saw the adoption of electricity and oil. Electricity facilitated industrial mechanization, while oil fueled the rise of the automotive industry, revolutionizing transportation.
5.2 Industrial Expansion and Imbalances
Industry expanded to Asturias, Valencia, and Madrid, while regions like the Canary Islands, Galicia, Castilla La Mancha, Extremadura, and Andalusia retained a traditional agricultural structure, with lower GDP per capita than the Spanish average.
6. Spanish Society in the 19th Century
6.1 New Ruling Classes
The landed gentry, despite losing some manorial rights, retained land ownership. Some families faced financial ruin in the late 19th century. The high bourgeoisie, owning new industries, large companies, and banks, emerged as a new wealthy class, sharing social dominance with the nobility. The middle class remained small, consisting of smaller industrialists.
6.2 Urban Popular Classes
Artisans and service workers continued to populate cities. Domestic service employed a significant number of women, while being a housewife was a marker of higher social status. Industrial growth led to rural migration in search of work. These workers, along with artisans, formed the industrial proletariat, facing poor living and working conditions, including long hours, low wages, and lack of social security.
6.3 Peasants
Peasants constituted the majority of the population (nearly 65% in 1860), with 80% lacking land ownership. Many worked as tenant farmers or laborers, enduring harsh conditions, low wages, and limited rights, leading to peasant revolts.
7. The Labor Movement: Anarchism and Marxism
7.1 Beginnings of the Labor Movement
The labor movement began in Spain, concentrated in Catalonia, the Basque Country, Asturias, and Madrid. The first union, the Barcelona Weavers Association, formed in 1840, aiming to improve working conditions and secure union rights. In 1870, the Spanish Federation of the International Workers Association was established, promoting Marxism and anarchism.
7.2 Anarchism
Catalan workers formed groups to challenge bourgeois society. Anarchist groups led workers towards social revolution, culminating in the founding of the National Confederation of Workers (CNT) in 1910, Spain’s most important union.
7.3 Socialism
Marxism gained influence among the proletariat in Madrid, the Basque Country, and Asturias. Marxists founded the Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) and the General Union of Workers (UGT) in 1888. Socialists advocated for parliamentary participation to achieve legal protections for workers, such as reduced working hours, prohibition of child labor, regulation of women’s work, and weekly rest. The PSOE gained its first parliamentary representative in 1910.