19th Century Spanish Monarchy: From Bourbon Crisis to Isabel II
1.1 The Bourbon Monarchy in Crisis
The Bourbon monarchy’s reaction to the French Revolution, led by Charles IV, was to declare war on France. This war ended in failure, and by 1799, Manuel Godoy implemented a radical foreign policy shift. He allied Spain with Napoleon to confront Great Britain and authorized the French army to cross Spain to attack Portugal (Treaty of Fontainebleau). Growing discontent among the Spanish population with Godoy’s decisions led to the Mutiny of Aranjuez. This mutiny forced Godoy’s resignation and the abdication of Charles IV in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon, seizing the opportunity, summoned both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to Bayonne, where they abdicated in favor of Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain.
4.1 The Carlist Wars
The most absolutist factions, supporting Ferdinand VII’s brother, Don Carlos, sought to place him on the throne. To defend her daughter’s claim, Isabella II, Maria Cristina sought the support of the Liberals. This sparked a civil war between the Carlists and the Isabellists. The Carlists defended the Ancien Régime: absolute monarchy, the prominent social role of the Catholic Church, and traditional values. The Isabellists represented a diverse coalition of interests. The monarchy itself, the court, and the nobility saw the defense of the throne and their privileges as vital. They allied with the Liberals as the only way to confront the Carlists. The Isabellist side also included the bourgeoisie, urban populations, and some peasant groups. The war lasted for seven years, with significant Carlist uprisings in the Basque Country, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. Although the Carlists failed to occupy any major cities, and the Liberal army clearly dominated, Carlism persisted throughout much of the 19th century. The Vergara Agreement officially ended the war.
4.2 Progressive Reforms
The Liberals were divided into two main factions: the Moderates, who favored limited reforms, and the Progressives, who sought to dismantle the Ancien Régime entirely. Maria Cristina initially formed a Moderate government. However, due to military uprisings and popular pressure, she was forced to appoint a Progressive government. Between 1835 and 1837, the Progressives, led by Mendizábal, introduced a liberal regime. A series of laws dissolved feudal manors, separated Church and State properties, and confiscated Church and municipal lands, liberalizing land ownership. This process culminated in the 1837 Constitution, which inaugurated a period of parliamentary monarchy in Spain. It recognized national sovereignty and individual rights but accepted a moderating role for the Crown, granting it certain powers. The electoral system was based on census suffrage.
5.1 The Moderate Decade
Moderate Liberalism
During the reign of Isabel II, the Moderate Liberal Party held power with the support of the monarchy. This period consolidated liberalism in Spain, but with a conservative and centralist character. Census suffrage was imposed, the Crown intervened significantly in politics, and freedoms were restricted. The army continued to exert considerable influence, with various groups appealing to it to seize power through pronouncements. The state administration became centralized and authoritarian. This new regime was supported by powerful groups who accepted the liberal order to curb Carlism but wanted to maintain their social dominance and exclude progressive and popular sectors from power.
Government Action
In the first decade of Isabel II’s reign, the 1845 Constitution was enacted, establishing very limited suffrage and shared sovereignty between the Cortes and the monarch. A concordat with the Holy See established a confessional state. State and municipal administration was reorganized along centralized lines, strengthening military and civilian governors in each province. Other Moderate reforms included financial centralization of taxes, the creation of a unified penal code, the dissolution of the national militia, and the establishment of the Civil Guard to maintain order in rural areas.
5.2 The Progressive Biennium and the Crisis of Isabelline Rule
Following a military pronouncement in 1854, backed by discontented Moderates and Progressives who had formed the Liberal Union, General O’Donnell came to power. Between 1854 and 1856, Espartero and the Progressives attempted to restore the principles of the 1837 Constitution and implement economic reforms. Madoz carried out further land redistribution, affecting municipal properties, and promoted railway construction. The final stage of Isabel II’s reign saw alternating power between the Moderates and the Liberal Union. A colonial policy was pursued, culminating in the African War. Domestically, the government implemented harsh repression. Opposition to the regime grew, and new political groups emerged, such as the Democrats, who advocated for universal male suffrage, and the Republicans, who sought the abolition of the monarchy.