19th Century Transformations: Industrial Revolution, Social Upheaval, and Marx’s Philosophy
19th Century Characteristics
The 19th century witnessed significant progress in science and technology, alongside major social and political upheavals. It was an era of rebellion against injustice and irrationality.
Key Changes in the 19th Century
a) Social and Economic Change
The Industrial Revolution, originating in England, introduced factories, mass production, and the capitalist economic system. This led to:
- Technological advancements: Invention of machines and use of new energy sources (steam, coal).
- Urbanization: Rural populations migrated to cities, creating an urban proletariat and labor movements.
b) Political Change
The French Revolution and subsequent revolutions (1820, 1830, 1848) challenged the ancien régime, leading to:
- Rise of political liberalism: This became the dominant organizational system in European societies, empowering the bourgeoisie.
Consequences of the Two Revolutions
The combination of industrial and political revolutions created a society marked by prosperity for some and misery for others, leading to conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Dominant Philosophical Current
Idealism
Idealism, rooted in Cartesian philosophy and empiricism, reached maturity with Kantian thought and flourished through German philosophers like Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. It posits that reality is fundamentally shaped by consciousness.
Hegel’s Absolute Idealism
“Everything real is rational and all the rational is real.”
Influences on Marx’s Philosophy
- German idealism (especially Hegel)
- Feuerbach’s materialism
- French utopian socialism
- Capitalist economic theorists (David Ricardo, Adam Smith)
Utopian Socialism
Utopian socialists proposed radical renewal of bourgeois society and the capitalist economy. Their egalitarian and communist ideas, though considered fantastical by Marx, contributed to the development of working-class consciousness. Key figures include Saint-Simon, Owen, and Fourier.
Scientific Socialism
Scientific socialism is the Marxist analysis of reality, embodied in a dialectical materialist theory of history and a critical study of capitalism.
Marx’s View of the Human Being
Marx criticized idealist philosophy for neglecting the real human being in favor of abstract speculation. He viewed humans as beings with needs, primarily survival needs (food, clothing). Humans are subjects interacting with nature, possessing vital forces to obtain what they need to live.
Understanding the Real Man
Marx argued that to understand humans, one must analyze the conditions of their core activity: work. Work involves transforming nature to meet needs and is the primary, though not only, human activity.
Marx’s Concept of Alienation
Alienation refers to the estrangement of humans from their essence, a consequence of the capitalist system. Workers become separated from the products of their labor, the labor process itself, their own species-being, and from each other.
Humans in Capitalist Society
Marx argued that in capitalist society, humans are reduced to economic beings, commodities.
Critique of Idealism
Marx criticized idealist philosophers (Hegel, Hegelian Left) for remaining in the realm of theory and neglecting the real conditions of human existence. He famously stated in his eleventh thesis on Feuerbach: “Philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point is to change it.”
The Need for Transformation
Marx believed that the existing capitalist system was unjust and irrational, causing the alienation of human beings. He advocated for revolutionary action to end this alienation.
Four Forms of Alienation
- Philosophical alienation: Caused by philosophies (idealism, ideology) that justify injustice.
- Religious alienation: Caused by religions like Christianity, which serve the ruling class.
- Legal and political alienation: Caused by laws and politics that serve the dominant social class in the capitalist state.
- Socio-economic alienation: Caused by the capitalist economic system, which perpetuates inequality.