19th-Century Transformations: Industry, Society, and Migration

Posted on Nov 23, 2024 in Geography

Phase 2 of Independence (1817-1824)

The absolutist restoration of Fernando VII was intolerable for the colonies.
The movement began in Argentina, under the influence of General San Martín, and achieved independence at the Congress of Tucumán (1816). General San Martín crossed the Andes and secured the victory of Chacabuco, sealing Chile’s independence (1818).
In the north, Simón Bolívar achieved independence for Colombia (1819) and proclaimed Gran Colombia in Angostura, envisioning it as a precursor to a future United States of America, associating it with Venezuela and Ecuador. This personal project lasted until his death (1830).
In 1821, Bolívar and San Martín launched a simultaneous attack from the north and south on the Viceroyalty of Peru. This area definitively gained independence after Bolívar’s victory at Ayacucho (1824), ending Spanish power in South America.
In Mexico, Agustín de Iturbide proclaimed independence (1821) following the principles of the Plan de Iguala and became the appointed emperor. The Federal Republic of Mexico was proclaimed in 1824.

From 1870, new energy sources—electricity and oil—replaced coal.
The steel sector experienced a major shift with the invention of the Bessemer furnace, capable of producing large quantities of steel at low cost.
The production and distribution of electricity led to the electricity industry. Electricity powered industrial machinery and facilitated the development of new transportation and communication methods.
The chemical industry utilized various raw materials to manufacture new products.
Britain lost its industrial supremacy.

Corporations were created. The capital required by a company was split into shares. Multiple individuals bought these shares, becoming partners in the firm. Shares were bought and sold on stock exchanges.
Banks became a key element of the economy. They granted loans to companies and acted as intermediaries between individuals and companies: customers kept their savings in banks.

Holding: A corporation of companies controlled by a single company, which owns most of their shares.

Engineer Taylor created Taylorism, dividing work into small, precisely timed tasks. Each worker specialized in one task and received a salary commensurate with their work.
Entrepreneur Henry Ford introduced serial production (Fordism). Products moved from one operator to another via an assembly line, minimizing downtime and increasing output per operator, resulting in lower industrial prices.
A process of concentration emerged. The need for increased investments and the desire to control markets led to mergers and cartels. Various forms of concentration arose: the cartel, the trust, and the holding company.

The population increase of the late 18th century intensified in the 19th century at an unprecedented rate.
Two causes drove population growth:
- The sharp decline in mortality, fueled by medical advancements and improvements in hygiene and nutrition. These advances increased life expectancy in Western Europe from 35 to 50 years between 1800 and 1900 and reduced infant mortality.
- Increased fertility due to improved economic prospects, leading younger married couples to have more children.

The Industrial Revolution accelerated the mechanization of farming and concentrated production in cities, forcing many farmers to seek urban work.
The number and size of cities increased dramatically.
Many cities prospered around factories.
Rapid and unplanned farmer migration led to haphazard urban growth.
In the latter half of the 19th century, new, planned suburbs housed the bourgeoisie and middle classes.

Cities could not absorb the entire peasant exodus. Between 1800 and 1924, 60 million Europeans emigrated to other continents.
These transoceanic migrations occurred in waves.
The majority of European immigrants went to America.

The French Revolution abolished the privileges of the nobility and clergy, which the restoration of the monarchy did not reinstate. The new industrial society was based on legal equality: all men were subject to the same laws and courts and could access public positions based on merit, not family background.
Society remained unequal. Women continued to be subordinate to men, and their rights were not recognized.
The population became divided into classes, and estates disappeared. Social class was distinguished by wealth, with upper, middle, and lower classes.

The European aristocracy lost social prominence with the elimination of their feudal rights over peasants. They began paying taxes and had to sell land to maintain their lifestyle.
Until the 20th century, aristocrats continued to occupy prestigious positions in politics, justice, the military, and diplomacy, and their lifestyle remained a social model.