20th Century Conflicts and Transformations
Spanish Second Republic Reforms
The Spanish Second Republic initiated agrarian reforms, impacting landowners and wages. Military reforms faced opposition, leading to the closure of reform schools and clashes with the Church hierarchy. The 1933 election saw the conservative CEDA suspend reforms, resulting in strikes and the 1934 Asturias Revolution, repressed by the army. The 1936 election restored the Popular Front, leading to Catalan autonomy (GA 1936-1939). Conservative factions opposed the government, culminating in a military coup supported by the Church and aided by Italy. The Republic, backed by unions, left parties, and the USSR, faced internal divisions. The Battle of the Ebro in 1938 failed, leading to the fall of Madrid, Valencia, and Catalonia, marking the beginning of Franco’s dictatorship until 1975.
World War II (1939-1945)
A destructive conflict with high civilian casualties, WWII saw Germany’s expansionism unchecked by European democracies. Austria and Czechoslovakia were annexed, leading to the invasion of Poland and war declarations by France and England. Germany, aided by Japan and Italy, occupied several European countries. The USSR was attacked in 1941. Japan’s expansion in Asia led to conflict with the US after Pearl Harbor. The US entry in 1943 turned the tide, culminating in the Normandy landings, the fall of Berlin, and the atomic bombings of Japan in August 1945.
Cold War (1945-1990)
Post-WWII, Europe was divided into capitalist (US-led) and communist (Soviet-led) blocs, creating nuclear tensions. Germany was divided, and military alliances (NATO and Warsaw Pact) were formed. The USSR’s influence led to the installation of communist dictators and the suppression of reform attempts in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968). Decolonization saw both blocs vying for influence, leading to conflicts like the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Vietnam War.
Post-War Revolutions and Conflicts
- Vietnam: After gaining independence from France, Vietnam was divided. The Viet Cong, backed by North Vietnam, fought to reunify the country, leading to US intervention and eventual withdrawal in 1973. Vietnam was unified in 1975.
- Chinese Revolution: Following Japan’s defeat, civil war resumed between communists and nationalists. The communists, led by Mao Zedong, established the People’s Republic of China in 1949.
- Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro’s guerrilla movement overthrew the US-backed dictatorship in 1959, leading to reforms and expropriations. US opposition resulted in an economic blockade and the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
- Latin American Dictatorships: Fear of communist revolutions led to US-supported dictatorships in Latin America during the 1970s, marked by repression and coups in countries like Chile, Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil. Democracies were gradually restored in the 1990s.