20th Century Europe: Wars, Revolutions, and Cultural Shifts
1. Imperialism and Colonialism
As you can see from this map, since the sixteenth century, Spain and other European countries had colonies. We often hear about this stage as “exercising economic control over territories.” While colonies existed and were studied in another unit, the colonization of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries differs from that of the modern age, as explained below:
Early Modern Colonization vs. Late 19th/Early 20th Century Colonization
- Ancient Roots: Greece
- Starring Countries (Early Modern): European powers
- Starring Countries (Late 19th/Early 20th): Europeans, U.S., and Japan
- Colonized Continent (Early Modern): Americas
- Colonized Continents (Late 19th/Early 20th): Africa and Asia
Why this renewed need for colonization? French Foreign Minister Jules Ferry’s 1885 speech to the Chamber of Deputies offers insight:
“Colonies are, for rich countries, an investment…It is necessary that our country is put on par with what others do and, since colonial expansion policy is moving matters at the time…that to be a great power is to colonize.”
Other contributing factors include:
- Economic exploitation, political control
- Individual initiative and the desire for exploration
Maps of Colonial Empires: 1800 vs. 1898
Comparing maps of colonial empires in 1800 and 1898 reveals a shift. In the early nineteenth century, most of the Americas were under European control, especially Spain. By 1898, almost all American countries were independent. The focus of colonization shifted to Africa and Asia.
The Scramble for Africa
The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 aimed to resolve conflicts in the Scramble for Africa. Key agreements included:
- Congo under King Leopold II of Belgium’s sovereignty.
- Free navigation of African rivers (Niger and Congo).
- Coastal occupation granted inland occupation rights.
These measures didn’t prevent clashes, notably between:
- French and British at Fashoda (Sudan).
- British and Boers in South Africa.
The Great Colonial Empires
The British Empire was the largest, with colonies across the globe. The French empire, while seemingly vast in Africa, largely consisted of the Sahara Desert.
Not all supported colonization. Clemenceau, in an 1885 speech to the French Chamber of Deputies, argued against the exploitation of less powerful nations.
Consequences for Colonized Countries
Colonization led to:
- Economic dependence on monoculture plantations.
- Social and cultural disruption, with Western culture replacing indigenous systems.
- Improved hygiene (a rare positive outcome).
2. The First World War
Europe before 1914 believed in progress and civilization. However, underlying tensions made the World War increasingly likely.
Causes of World War I
- Rivalry between European Powers: Franco-Prussian War tensions, Anglo-German naval race, and Balkan instability fueled rivalries.
- Alliance System: The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia) solidified opposing blocs.
- Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand: This event triggered the war, but underlying tensions were the real cause.
The Conflict
Propaganda played a key role. Posters aimed to stir patriotism and encourage enlistment. The war involved Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria) against the Allied Powers (Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Japan, U.S., and others).
Trench warfare became the norm, with harsh conditions for soldiers. 1917 marked a turning point with the U.S. entering the war and the Russian Revolution.
Consequences of the War
The Treaty of Versailles aimed to establish peace but blamed Germany, creating resentment. The war resulted in millions of deaths, economic devastation, and the creation of the League of Nations.
3. The Russian Revolution
Russia in 1917 was a stratified society, ripe for revolution.
Causes of the Revolution
- War against Japan (1904-1905).
- Revolution of 1905.
- World War I.
1917 Revolution
The February Revolution overthrew the Tsar. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in October.
Lenin’s Government
Lenin implemented the New Economic Policy (NEP), nationalized industries, and created the USSR.
The Stalin Era
Stalin took power in 1929, establishing a totalitarian regime.
4. The 1929 Crisis (Great Depression)
The 1929 stock market crash in the U.S. triggered a global economic crisis.
Roosevelt’s New Deal
In the U.S., Roosevelt’s New Deal implemented state intervention to address the crisis.
5. Fascism
Fascism emerged in interwar Europe, opposing liberalism and the labor movement.
Causes of Fascism
- Post-World War I map of Europe.
- Fear of communism.
- Middle-class support.
Italian Fascism
Mussolini established a fascist dictatorship in Italy.
German Nazism
Hitler led the Nazi party in Germany, promoting totalitarian ideals and racial supremacy.
6. World War II
Causes of World War II
- German expansionism.
- Appeasement policy.
Opposing Forces
Allies vs. Axis powers.
Phases of the War
- German successes (1939-1941).
- Intervention by the USSR and U.S.
- Allied offensives (1944-1945).
Consequences of World War II
- Massive human and material losses.
- Creation of the UN.
- Territorial changes.
7. Spain: The Restoration
The Restoration began with Alfonso XII’s reign, aiming to stabilize the monarchy.
Alfonso XII’s Reign (1874-1885)
The Regency (1885-1902)
The loss of Spanish colonies in 1898 (Spanish-American War) marked a turning point.
8. The Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931)
Alfonso XIII’s reign saw increasing social and political unrest.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
9. The Second Republic (1931-1936)
The Second Republic was proclaimed in 1931 after Alfonso XIII’s exile.
Phases of the Republic
The Progressive Biennium (1931-1933)
The Rightist Biennium (1934-1935)
The Popular Front (1936)
10. The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
Sides
Republicans vs. Nationalists.
Phases of the War
Consequences of the Civil War
11. Culture, Art, and the Silver Age in Spain
Science and Thought
Art
Architecture
Sculpture
Painting
The Silver Age of Spanish Culture
Science
Literature
Arts
Architecture
Sculpture
Painting
Picasso, Miró, and Dalí were key figures in the Silver Age of Spanish art.