20th Century European Turmoil: Revolutions, Dictatorships, and War
1.2 The February Revolution
During World War I, Russia was unprepared for a long and costly war. Military disasters led to a decline in agricultural production. Famine appeared in cities, spreading unrest among workers and peasants, discrediting Tsar Nicholas II. The population organized into soviets (workers’ councils) demanding the Tsar’s withdrawal from the war.
The Fall of the Tsar
In February 1917, a revolution erupted in St. Petersburg, leading to the downfall of the Tsarist regime.
1.3 The October Revolution
The Bolsheviks, advocating for socialism, gained popularity. On October 25th, the Soviets rose, took control, and dismissed the interim government. Lenin formed a workers’ government and implemented revolutionary measures:
- Land distribution among peasants
- Factory control given to workers
2.3. Stalinism
Stalin imposed a collectivist political economy to transform the Soviet Union into a major industrial power. This involved:
- Prohibition of private ownership; state ownership became the priority
- Emphasis on heavy industry to build infrastructure
- Institution of a state-led economy
This resulted in rapid industrialization, but agriculture lagged due to its subordination to industry. Stalin established a dictatorship with the Communist Party controlling all state organs.
5.1. Italy’s Postwar Period
Post-war Italy faced significant human and economic losses. Industries were crippled. The peace accords were disappointing, as Italy did not receive all promised territories (Trentino, Dalmatia, Istria, Trieste, and Fiume), leading to the belief that Italy’s war participation was a hoax. This created strong social tension, with strikes and land/factory seizures by peasants and workers.
5.2. The Rise of Fascism
In 1919, Mussolini created the Fasci di Combattimento, groups aimed at suppressing the labor movement and unions. In 1921, this became the National Fascist Party, presenting themselves as effective against revolutionary movements. They gained support from the petty bourgeoisie, large landowners, the Catholic Church, and King Victor Emmanuel III. In the 1922 elections, Fascists only won 22 out of 500 seats. However, that same year, 300,000 “Blackshirts” crushed strikes. Mussolini demonstrated his power with the “March on Rome.”
5.3. Fascist Dictatorship
Between 1922-1925, Mussolini restricted freedoms and persecuted opponents. After winning the 1924 elections, he established an authoritarian regime, assuming all powers and calling himself Duce.
6.1. The Weimar Republic
In 1918, William II abdicated, and a republic was proclaimed in Weimar. Germans resented the humiliating Treaty of Versailles, blaming Germany for World War I. Post-war Germany experienced economic crisis, poverty, and unemployment. The Weimar Republic struggled with this situation and popular discontent, facing threats from leftist revolutionary movements and right-wing coup attempts.
6.2. Hitler and the Nazi Party
Adolf Hitler, a soldier who rejected Germany’s defeat, founded the National Socialist German Workers’ Party in 1920. His ideology, outlined in “Mein Kampf,” expressed contempt for democracy and Bolshevism, advocating Aryan racial superiority and a German empire. Hitler promised jobs and better wages, blaming Jews and Democrats for Germany’s crisis.
7.1. The Nazi Dictatorship
In 1934, the Nazis transformed Germany into a dictatorship. Unions were banned, opponents suppressed, and only the Nazi Party was permitted. Workers were organized into national syndicalist labor groups. Public administration, the judiciary, and local authorities were purged. The Nazi state was based on Aryan racial superiority and National Socialist ideology. Artists who did not conform were persecuted. Women were marginalized, their roles defined by the “three Ks” (Kinder, Kirche, Küche – children, church, kitchen).
7.2. A Regime of Terror
Germany became a police state ruled by terror. Maintaining racial purity led to the persecution of Jews. In 1933, Jewish businesses were boycotted. In 1935, marriages between Jews and Germans were banned, and in 1938, Jews were forced to wear badges. Opponents were sent to concentration camps.
7.3. Economic Autarky and Rearmament
The Third Reich aimed to make Germany a global economic power. Nazi economic policy focused on militarization and expansion, striving for economic autarky. Priority was given to heavy industry and armaments. Public works projects addressed unemployment. Hitler pursued a militaristic policy, building a powerful army and a war-oriented economy, preparing for empire-building and the conquest of Lebensraum (living space) in Europe.
6.1. Coup to Civil War
On July 17, 1936, a significant military faction staged a coup, disobeying government orders and seizing cities to restore order. The government’s slow response allowed the rebels to gain strength. On July 19, responding to popular demand, the new mayor armed union militias and the Popular Front to defend republican legality.
6.2. The Internationalization of the Conflict
The Spanish Civil War had wide international repercussions, seen as a clash between democratic forces and fascist regimes. The rebels received German and Italian support. To avoid European conflict, France and Britain remained neutral, harming the Republic, which only received aid from the USSR. International solidarity with the Republican side led to the formation of the International Brigades.
8.1. The Development of Conflict
By late 1936, two zones were established: one Republican and one rebel-held.
Progress towards Madrid
The rebels’ strategy was to advance from the south to capture Madrid.
Battle of the North
On April 26, the German Condor Legion bombed Guernica.
The Battle of the Ebro
In 1938, the rebels advanced through Aragon and Catalonia, reaching the Mediterranean and isolating Republican forces. The Republic concentrated its forces at the Battle of the Ebro to push back, but ultimately retreated.
8.2. End of War and Exile
By February 1939, Republicans only held Madrid. A council attempted to negotiate with Franco but failed. On April 1, 1939, the conflict ended. Thousands of Spanish Republicans went into exile in France, many joining the resistance against the Nazis in World War II. Others went to Latin America or the USSR. A government-in-exile was established in Mexico.