20th Century Spanish Literature: From Modernism to Post-War Poetry
20th Century Spanish Literature
Poetry of the Generation of ’98
This movement’s overlap with Modernism is notable, as both emerged around the same time. The Generation of ’98 (G.98) was driven by progressive ideology and concern for Spain’s socio-political crises. Two main trends within the G.98 are the French Symbolist legacy (seen in Machado) and the German ideological influence (seen in Unamuno). However, the G.98 also retains elements like impressionistic descriptions and the idealization of nature, particularly the Castilian landscape.
4.2.1 Antonio Machado (1875-1939)
Born in Seville, Machado’s ideology shifted towards radicalism and a profound existential humanism. He left Spain at the end of the Civil War and died in France. His poetry blends classical forms with symbolism of the sensory world and an exploration of inner thoughts and emotions.
Three Stages:
- The first stage is represented by Solitudes (1903), a book that was later expanded. It portrays the poet’s inner world, loneliness, the melancholic passage of time, and the concept of a lost paradise.
- The second stage is represented by Campos de Castilla (1912). It marks his integration into the Generation of ’98 and expresses his dissatisfaction and disconnect with social realities.
- The third stage is displayed in New Songs. It is more reflective, with thought leading to judgment.
Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)
A playwright, novelist, and essayist, Unamuno expressed his anxieties in an austere style, focusing on internal existential problems and his aesthetic vision of Castile. Key works include Poems (1907), Ballads of Exile (1928), and Cancionero (1953).
Poetry of the Generation of ’27
This group of writers emerged around 1920.
Generational Traits:
- Born between 1892 and 1902.
- Shared intellectual backgrounds.
- Common involvement in teaching and literary journals.
- Paid homage to Góngora in 1927 on the 300th anniversary of his death.
- Key influences include Góngora, Juan Ramón Jiménez, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna.
Influences:
- From Modernism: artistic rigor, a minority attitude, and a mystical concept of poetry.
- From Juan Ramón Jiménez: aesthetic purity and poetry as a form of knowledge.
- From the Avant-Garde: the dehumanization of art, modernity in themes, the manipulation of images and metaphors, and cosmopolitanism.
Stylistic Features:
- Use of expressive resources of the irrational, such as synesthesia and symbolism.
- Cultivation of metaphor and imagery.
- Tendency to experiment with meter and rhythm.
- Progressive use of free verse.
- Vision of reality filtered through their own inner experience.
4.4.5 Federico García Lorca (1898-1936)
Lorca lived primarily in Madrid, except for a year in New York in 1929. He was tragically killed at the beginning of the Civil War. His work emphasizes poetry and drama, both exploring themes of death and love fueled by pain, frustration, and mortality.
Two Stages:
- 1921-1928: A vision of love and the tragic deaths of marginalized characters, particularly gypsies, as seen in Songs (1927) and Gypsy Ballads (1928).
- 1929-1936: A shift towards surrealism and a break with traditional verse, while maintaining his solidarity with the marginalized. Poet in New York (1929) expresses the tension between nature and civilization, and between humanism and blind progress.
4.4.6 Rafael Alberti (1902-1999)
A painter and poet, Alberti’s verse is characterized by vibrant colors, perfect rhythm, and musicality rooted in Spanish tradition.
Three Stages:
- The first stage begins with the stylization of traditional and popular forms in Marinero en tierra (1925).
- The second stage starts with Cal y Canto (1927) and culminates in Sobre los ángeles (1929), a surrealist work inspired by a personal, ideological, and religious crisis.
- In the third stage, the poet humanizes his verses during the Republic, the Civil War, and exile, placing them in the service of ideas and solidarity, as seen in Sermones y moradas (1939).
Poetry of the Generation of ’50
This group of poets began publishing in the 1950s, including Ángela González, Jaime Gil de Biedma, and Claudio Rodríguez. These social poets shared a critical perspective on reality, a humanistic attitude, and a concern for the human condition. Their style is characterized by conscious intention and meticulous attention to language and poetic form.
Ángela González
Born in Oviedo, her poetry alternates between socially engaged content and more intimate, personal themes. Her style ranges from colloquial and ironic to ingenious and conceptual. Key work: Rough World.
Jaime Gil de Biedma
Born in Barcelona to a bourgeois family, he exerted a significant influence on his generation and the trend known as poetry of experience. His work is characterized by irony and a focus on everyday life. Key work: Fellow Travelers.
Claudio Rodríguez
Born in Zaragoza, a professor and recipient of the National Book Award, his poetry features a harmonious blend of surrealist imagery, formal classicism, and the transparency of landscape. It carries a strong humanistic sense. Key work: Alliance and Conviction.
The Novel of Modernism and the Generation of ’98
The novel’s themes mirrored those of poetry (ranging from classical to modern, medieval to romantic), with sensuality, idealization, and the stylization of reality as foundational elements. The Generation of ’98 embraced various literary currents, including Modernism (impressionistic descriptions, language renewal), Naturalism (themes and ideas, but avoiding the vulgar realistic style), German thought (intellectual and existential focus), and Romanticism (nostalgic evocations).
1.1.1 Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936): The Intellectual and Existential Novel
Born in Bilbao, Unamuno was a professor of Greek with a vast knowledge base. He excelled in various fields, particularly as a novelist, playwright, poet, essayist, intellectual, and thinker (one of the most prominent of his time). His novels are notable for their idealization of the Castilian landscape and their profound existentialism (a preoccupation with religious meaning, as seen in San Manuel Bueno, Martyr). He demonstrates a desire for renewal in language, form, and narrative techniques, characteristic of Modernism. He coined the term “nivola” to describe his novels, distinguishing them from realistic works (more intellectual language, with the author imposing their own laws and criteria rather than those of strict realism).
1.1.2 Pío Baroja (1872-1956): The Social and Naturalistic Novel
Considered the greatest novelist of his time, Baroja portrayed solitary characters with underlying gentleness. He viewed human nature with a radical pessimism that led him to criticize a corrupt society. He also conceived of life as a struggle in which the weakest always lose, expressing distrust in all human organizations. His literary work reflects despair and anguish (Romantic), a deterministic view of the world (Naturalism), impressionistic descriptions, psychological environments, and nostalgic evocations, leading to ambiguous settings that don’t delve deeply into character psychology. Key work: The Tree of Knowledge.
The Poetry of War
The exile of many intellectuals after the Civil War plunged Spain into isolation, enforced by strict political and ideological censorship. Due to the lack of freedom, only two poetic stances were possible: to endorse the new regime (rooted poetry) or to reflect the prevailing despair (uprooted poetry).
1.1.1 Rooted Poetry
Cultivated by authors who supported the dictatorship, this trend embraced a neoclassical style and a heroic, intimate tone. Key figures include Leopoldo Panero (The Empty Room), Luis Rosales (Christmas Altarpiece), and Dionisio Ridruejo (Poetry in Arms).
1.1.2 Uprooted Poetry
This trend opposed rooted poetry, reflecting the individual struggles of human beings in times of hardship and pain. It is characterized by a lack of faith in the future. Key figures include Blas de Otero, Gabriel Celaya, and José Hierro, who employed a fragmented, almost violent language.