20th Century Spanish Poetry
Luis Cernuda (1902-1963)
Born in Seville, Cernuda graduated in law but decided to dedicate himself to literature. He became a Spanish teaching assistant at the Ecole Normale de Toulouse and later lived in Madrid. During the Civil War, he was exiled to England and never returned to Spain, teaching in English and American universities. In 1952, he moved to Mexico, where he died. Cernuda lived a lonely and painful life, feeling like an outsider, perhaps due to his homosexuality, which led to isolation and rebellion. His poetry often explores the impossibility of achieving dreams in a hostile reality. Frustration, longing for a better life, boredom, and love are recurring themes, with Becquer’s influence evident in many of his poems. He rejected pompous language, favoring a conversational tone with everyday words and colloquialisms. Cernuda used long verses and often ignored rhyme, reflecting his inner world with a strong romantic sensibility.
Influenced by Jorge Guillén, he published Profile in the Air (1927), comprised of youthful and tender poems. In a River, One Love (1929) and Forbidden Pleasures (1931) focus on the theme of love. Cernuda began to apply Surrealist techniques, resulting in Where Oblivion Dwells (1932-33), where he moved away from love as a central theme. He collected his poems in Reality and Desire (1936), revisiting romantic themes of love, death, and loneliness with clear and sincere language. After the war, Cernuda expanded his themes to include exile and war in works like Clouds (1940) and Living Without Living (1944-1949). Desolation of the Chimera (1962), his best work, sees him bidding farewell as a poet and returning to themes of childhood, love, exile, and art. Cernuda also wrote two books of prose poetry: Ocnos (1942-1963) and Variations on a Mexican Theme (1949-1950), evoking Andalusia and Mexico, respectively. His literary criticism is highlighted by Studies in Contemporary Spanish Poetry (1957).
Rafael Alberti (1902-1999)
A member of the Generation of ’27, Alberti was born in Puerto de Santa Maria (Cadiz). Initially dedicated to painting, he transitioned to poetry. In 1934, he founded the magazine October Revolution. Due to the Civil War, he went into exile in Argentina and later moved to Rome in 1962. He died in his hometown. Alberti’s work demonstrates a deep knowledge of Spanish literature, with influences from the Songbook, Garcilaso, Góngora, Lope, Becquer, Juan Ramón Jiménez, and Antonio Machado. He cultivated various styles, including popular poetry, surrealism, pure poetry, and humanized poetry. Alongside Lorca, he exemplifies the neopopularista poetry of the Generation of ’27.
Sailor on Land (1924), his first work, won the National Literature Prize. It consists of short poems with popular themes, characterized by light grace and musicality, expressing longing for the sea and his homeland. The Lover (1925) resulted from a journey through Spain and, like his previous work, draws inspiration from popular poetry. With Lime and Song (1929), Alberti turned to avant-garde and learned poetry, showing the influence of Góngora, which is further emphasized in Concerning the Angels (1929), a surreal and turbulent work. In a third stage, influenced by the Civil War, Alberti published Poet in the Street (1938) and From Time to Time (1937-39). As a Communist Party member, he engaged in propaganda work for the Republic. These poems are committed to the cause, humanized, and sometimes demagogic.
In exile, Alberti continued to publish extensively. A Painting (1948) pays homage to one of his passions. In Return of the Living from Afar (1952) and Maritime Ora (1953), he writes nostalgic poems dedicated to his distant Spain. Ballads and Songs of Paraná (1954) continues the theme of exile. Finally, Alberti pays tribute to Rome in Rome, Danger for Walkers (1968).
Miguel Hernández (1910-1942)
Part of the Generation of ’36, Miguel Hernández’s personal and poetic affinities with Generation of ’27 authors like Federico García Lorca and Vicente Aleixandre allow him to be considered a younger brother or follower. Born in Orihuela (Alicante) to a humble family, he studied for only two years before working as a shepherd. However, he continued his education independently. He entered the literary scene with his friend Ramon Sijé and moved to Madrid in 1931 to pursue poetry, where he met authors of the Generation of ’27 and Pablo Neruda. During the Civil War, he enlisted and fought for the Republican side. He married Josefina Manresa in 1937, but their first child died shortly after birth. They had another child after the war, but Hernández was imprisoned and died of tuberculosis in 1942.
Initially known as the shepherd-poet, Hernández gained admiration and respect. In 1933, he published Expert on Moons, influenced by Góngora. The Lightning that Never Stops (1936) consists mainly of vital and loving sonnets, showcasing his mastery of technique and assimilation of influences. It includes the “Elegy to Ramon Sijé.” With the outbreak of the Civil War, he volunteered and acted as a cultural commissioner. His language became simpler and more accessible. He published Wind of the People (1937) and The Man on the Lookout (1939), addressing social issues. In prison, he composed Songbook and Absences (1938-1941), rebelling against injustice. These intimate poems include “Nanas de la Cebolla,” dedicated to his wife and son. Miguel Hernández was the first 20th-century Spanish poet to address social issues, bridging the Generation of ’27 and wartime poets. His work is characterized by passion, beauty, and sincerity.
Poetry up to the Fifties
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) marked a decisive break in all aspects of life, including poetry. After the war, art was revived but couldn’t escape the political and social climate. The Generation of ’36 split into two groups:
Rooted Poetry
Formed by Luis Felipe Vivanco (The Clearing), Leopoldo Panero (Personal Canto), Luis Rosales (The House Is On), and Ridruejo (Elegies). They shared a deep religious sentiment and sought to forget the war, writing about God, nature, love, family, and landscape. Their poems were published in magazines like Escorial and Garcilaso. The latter brought together young writers, including José García Nieto, the magazine’s director.
Uprooted Poetry
In 1944, a movement opposing Rooted Poetry emerged. The publication of Dámaso Alonso’s Children of Wrath and Vicente Aleixandre’s Shadow of Paradise, along with the journal Espadaña, signaled a shift in poetic consciousness. These authors, dissatisfied with the world around them, expressed their discontent through direct and committed poetry, prioritizing content over form. Key figures include Victoriano Cremer and Eugenio de Nora. In 1947, José Luis Hidalgo published The Dead, a work reflecting his fear of death and the search for an absent God.
Social Poetry
Influenced by Espadaña, social poetry emerged, concerned with social reality, human problems, injustice, and misery. This rehumanized poetry served as an instrument of denunciation and social commitment. The language was accessible, the themes relatable to ordinary people, and the focus was on conveying the message rather than poetic form. Free verse was often used, but with careful formal preparation. Some poets, like Blas de Otero, believed poetry should be a tool for transforming the world, contrasting with Juan Ramón Jiménez’s aim to write for a select minority. This poetry was influenced by Antonio Machado and Miguel Hernández.
Blas de Otero (1916-1979)
Deeply concerned with Spain’s social reality in the fifties, Otero’s poetry revolves around the meaning of life, God’s role, memories of war, and its consequences. His poetry can be labeled existentialist and committed. He used deceptively simple language, employing alliterations, parallels, puns, and colloquial expressions. Spiritual Canticle (1942) belongs to his early social poetry, presenting a God who forgets and despises humanity. This theme recurs in Fiercely Human Angel (1950) and Scroll of Consciousness (1951), consolidated and expanded in Pido la paz y la palabra (1955), his most important work reflecting his social concerns. In 1974, he published an anthology, Verse and Prose.
José Hierro (1922-2002)
Born in Madrid, Hierro moved to Santander at age two. He joined the Union of Revolutionary Writers and Artists and wrote his first poem, “A Bullet Killed Him,” during the Civil War. His expression is simple, direct, and concerned with reality, aiming for clarity and understandability. Imprisoned for clandestine activities from 1939 to 1944, he began collaborating with literary magazines upon release. He published Earth Without Us (1947) and Joy, which won the Adonáis Poetry Prize. In 1952, he moved to Madrid, where he developed the rest of his work, including Five of 42 (1952), How Much They Know Me (1957), Book of Hallucinations (1964), and New York Journal (1998). He received numerous awards, including the National Prize for Spanish Literature (1953 and 1990), National Critics Award (1957 and 1964), Prince of Asturias Prize for Literature (1981), Reina Sofia Prize for Hispanic Poetry (1995), and the Cervantes Prize (1998).