20th-Century Spanish Poetry: A Generational Overview
Pedro Salinas (1892-1951)
Born in Madrid, Pedro Salinas’s life was disrupted by the Spanish Civil War, forcing him into exile in the United States. His early work was influenced by the pure poetry of Juan Ramón Jiménez (Omens), later evolving into avant-garde futurism (Fabula and Sign). Salinas is best known as a poet of love, employing nominal constructions, few adjectives, and free verse to explore the depths of human connection.
Jorge Guillén (1893-1984)
Born in Valladolid, Jorge Guillén also experienced exile in the U.S. after the Spanish Civil War. He eventually settled in Málaga, where he won the Cervantes Prize, Spain’s highest literary honor. A leading figure of pure poetry, Guillén’s intellectual and stylized work sought the essence of things, echoing the philosophy of Juan Ramón Jiménez. His extensive oeuvre, conceived as a unified whole, is grouped under the title Our Air and includes Cántico, Crying, Homage, and Other Poems and End. Cántico, a collection of his poetry from 1928 to 1950, is a passionate ode to life and faith. His elaborate style, characterized by nominalizations, exclamations, short infinitive phrases, and classical verse forms like the sonnet, conveys a vital and positive worldview.
Federico García Lorca (1898-1936)
Born in Fuentevaqueros, Federico García Lorca moved to Madrid to study and resided at the Residencia de Estudiantes, where he met Juan Ramón Jiménez and other prominent artists. A fellowship took him to Columbia University in New York, a journey that profoundly impacted his work. Lorca founded the traveling theater group La Barraca, bringing classical theater to rural audiences. Tragically, he was killed at the outset of the Spanish Civil War.
Poetry
Lorca’s early poetry blends popular inspiration with learned, traditional, and avant-garde influences, exemplified by Poem of the Cante Jondo (1921). His work often exhibits a dramatic quality, marked by both sorrowful and tragic notes, and the use of dialogue. Notable works include Romancero Gitano (Gypsy Ballads) and Poet in New York.
Theater
Lorca’s final three plays are considered masterpieces: Bodas de Sangre (Blood Wedding, 1933), in which a bride elopes with her true love on her wedding day; Yerma (1934), exploring the societal condemnation of a woman’s infertility; and La Casa de Bernarda Alba (The House of Bernarda Alba, 1936), depicting the struggle between authority and freedom.
Rafael Alberti (1902-1999)
Born in El Puerto de Santa María (Cádiz), Rafael Alberti moved to Madrid with his family in 1917. In 1925, he shared the National Prize for Literature with Gerardo Diego for Sailor Ashore. He later lived in exile in Rome and returned to Spain in 1977, receiving the Cervantes Prize in 1983. Alberti’s poetry is diverse. His early neopopular works, like Sailor Ashore, draw on traditional and folk poetry, employing eight-syllable verses, assonance, nicknames, parallelisms, and exclamations to express nostalgia for his childhood and the sea. Avant-garde and Gongorine influences are evident in Cal y Canto (Lime and Stone). Sobre los ángeles (Concerning the Angels), written during a period of personal crisis, features surrealist elements and explores themes of expulsion from paradise and spiritual conflict.
Miguel Hernández (1910-1942)
Born in Orihuela (Alicante), Miguel Hernández spent his childhood balancing school with work as a goatherd. In Madrid, he connected with the Generation of ’27. He joined the Republican forces during the Spanish Civil War and died in prison shortly after its end. Perito en Lunas (Expert in Moons) marked a turning point in his poetic development. He embraced the sonnet form, particularly during the war, writing poems of solidarity and lament, such as Viento del pueblo (Wind of the People). His work, including the poignant El rayo que no cesa (The Unceasing Lightning), which expresses grief over separation from his wife and son, bridges the Generation of ’27 and the early postwar poetry.
Luis Cernuda (1902-1963)
Born in Seville, Luis Cernuda was a student of Pedro Salinas. He became acquainted with Juan Ramón Jiménez, and despite his solitary, shy, and introverted nature, formed a friendship with Federico García Lorca. The title of his collected works, La Realidad y el Deseo (Reality and Desire), encapsulates the essence of his poetry: the quest to reconcile his life with his desires. His poems are a tragic expression of the tension between these two poles. The contrast between existence and longing gives rise to feelings of frustration and existential loneliness. Influenced by pure poetry in Perfil del Aire (Profile of Air), he later embraced surrealism in Un Río, un Amor (A River, a Love). Cernuda’s poetry is deeply personal, characterized by emotional intensity and innovative techniques, as seen in Los Placeres Prohibidos (Forbidden Pleasures).
Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses are dependent clauses that rely on a main clause.
A) Substantive Subordinate Clauses
These clauses function as nouns and perform the same grammatical roles. Example: I want (that you study). (The subordinate clause replaces a noun.)
Types:
- Introduced by the conjunction “that”: “That” is analyzed as a conjunction or linking word. Example: I want (that you study).
- Introduced by an infinitive: Example: I want (to eat bread).
- Introduced by the conjunction “if”: Example: I wonder (if you have the book).
- Introduced by interrogative determiners, pronouns, or adverbs (always accented): Example: Tell me (which book you are reading).
- Introduced by interrogative pronouns (who, where, what, when, how, how much): Example: Tell me (what you are doing).
Functions:
- Subject: (Loving your friends) is good.
- Direct Object: I want (you to study).
- Predicate Nominative: (Loving others) is (sharing your money).
- Indirect Object: Give the book (to those who work).
- Complement of a Noun: I have the intention of (taking the course).
- Complement of an Adjective: Peter is fond of (collecting trading cards).
B) Adjective or Relative Subordinate Clauses
These clauses function as adjectives and modify a noun in the main clause. They are also called relative clauses because they relate back to a preceding noun (antecedent).
Types:
- Introduced by relative pronouns (that, who, whom, whose, which, where, when, how): Example: I bought the book (that I wanted).
- Introduced by relative determiners (whose, which, what): Example: The boy (whose father came yesterday) is my friend.
- Introduced by the relative adverb “where”: Example: I live in the house (where you were born).
As adjective equivalents, these clauses always function as complements of a noun.
C) Adverbial or Circumstantial Subordinate Clauses
These clauses function as adverbs and modify the verb in the main clause.
Types:
- Time: Indicate when the action of the main verb takes place. Introduced by conjunctions like “when.” Example: I will go (when you come).
- Place: Indicate where the action takes place. Introduced by conjunctions like “where.” Example: I live (where you live).
- Manner: Indicate how the action takes place. Introduced by conjunctions like “as” or “like.” Example: Do things (as you like).
- Comparative: Establish a comparison with the main clause. Introduced by conjunctions like “as” or “than,” often with particles like “such,” “so,” or “as much.” Example: I have as many (as my grandfather has).
- Quantity.
- Conditional: Indicate a condition necessary for the main clause to be true. Introduced by conjunctions like “if.” Example: (If you pass), you can buy the car.
- Causal: Indicate the cause or reason for the main action. Introduced by conjunctions like “because.” Example: I am going (because it is raining).
- Purpose: Indicate the purpose of the main action. Introduced by conjunctions like “to” or “in order to.” Example: I go to school (to learn the lesson).
- Concessive: Indicate an obstacle or concession. Introduced by conjunctions like “although” or “even if.” Example: (Even if it rains), I will go to the beach.
- Consecutive: Indicate a consequence or result. Example: He was so tall (that he hit his head).