20th Century Spanish Theater: From Realism to Experimentalism
Spanish Theater in the 20th Century
Post-Civil War Theater (1939-1950)
Like poetry and the novel, Spanish theater was deeply affected by the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Post-war authorities saw theater as a tool for healing the psychological wounds inflicted by the war. This led to the production of low-quality plays that, nonetheless, were enthusiastically received by the public. Major playwrights like Federico García Lorca and Miguel Hernandez died as a result of the war, while others, such as Rafael Alberti, Alejandro Casona, and Max Aub, were exiled.
Max Aub (1903-1972)
Max Aub, exiled in Mexico, wrote quality plays inspired by the war, including What Have You Done Today to Win the War? and Die by Closing the Eyes (1944).
Commercial Theater
The post-war period also saw the rise of a commercial theater, primarily comedic, with the aim of entertaining audiences. Two prominent authors in this genre were Enrique Jardiel Poncela and Miguel Mihura.
Enrique Jardiel Poncela (1901-1952)
Following significant pre-Civil War successes, Jardiel Poncela continued to thrive during the war. His works are known for their sharp dialogue and absurd situations. Notable plays include Eloísa is Under an Almond Tree (1940), Thieves Are Honest People (1941), and The Inhabitants of the Empty House (1942).
Miguel Mihura (1905-1977)
Born into a theatrical family, Mihura was exposed to the stage from a young age. His comedic writing is exemplified by Three Top Hats, written in 1932.
Realistic Social Criticism (1950s-1960s)
During the 1950s and 1960s, a new type of theater emerged in Spain, aiming to reflect the harsh realities of daily life with a clear purpose of social critique. This committed theater rejected fantasies and idealizations, seeking to echo the concerns of its time, much like literary and historical narratives. It condemned harsh working conditions, the dehumanization of bureaucracy, social injustice, and the difficulties faced by the opposition. Theater became a voice for the lower classes and a defender of human dignity. This type of theater frequently clashed with censorship, as the Franco regime did not tolerate criticism.
Antonio Buero Vallejo (1916-2000)
Antonio Buero Vallejo, initially sentenced to death by the Franco regime, met Miguel Hernandez in prison. Pardoned in 1949, he achieved recognition with History of a Staircase. This play depicts the lives of three generations of residents, their hopes and failures, symbolizing the life of the entire country. The play unfolds across three acts, set in 1919, 1929, and 1949, highlighting the persistence of poverty and problems across generations. This is a clear example of social criticism.
Buero’s plays often feature extensive and detailed annotations, adding literary value to their reading. The Burning Darkness (1950) explores the limitations of a group of blind people and their rebellion against their situation. This theme is revisited in The Concert of San Ovidio (1962). Buero also wrote plays based on historical events, such as A Dreamer for a People (1958) about Esquilache, a minister of Charles III; Las Meninas (1962) about Velázquez; and The Sleep of Reason (1970) about Francisco de Goya. The Spanish Civil War is addressed in The Skylight (1967) and Mission to the Deserted Village (1999). Other notable works include The Foundation (1974), Caimán (1981), and Lazarus and the Labyrinth (1986). Buero Vallejo is considered a pivotal figure in the renewal of post-war Spanish theater.
Alfonso Sastre (1926-2021)
In contrast to Buero’s approach, Sastre believed that the primary purpose of theater should be social critique as a form of aesthetic revolution. He argued that plays should bear witness to social issues and strive to change society. Consequently, Sastre faced censorship, particularly after the publication of Squad to the Death (1953) and two plays criticizing political issues like the Vietnam War: Terror Exercises (1970) and Magnetic Tapes (1971). His later work, The Last Days of Immanuel Kant (1990), explores the philosopher’s aging.
Other Authors of Social Realism
Numerous playwrights dedicated their work to exposing the oppressive situation in Spain during the 1950s and early 1960s under Franco’s rule. They drew inspiration from earlier social realism, such as Joaquín Dicenta’s Juan José (1896).
Lauro Olmo (1922-1994) made a significant contribution with The Shirt (1961), addressing the timely theme of emigration as a solution to poverty. This reflected the large-scale emigration from Spain during this period, both to industrial areas within Spain and to Central European countries.
José María Rodríguez Méndez (1925-2017) denounced the plight of political opponents in the civil service in The Innocents of Moncloa (1961).
Commercial Theater (1950s-1960s)
Alongside established figures like Jardiel Poncela, Mihura, Pemán, and Luca de Tena, new authors emerged during these decades, seeking to capture the attention of the public.
Alfonso Paso (1926-1978)
Paso initially focused on social theater with works like Trial of a Scoundrel (1952) and The Poor Things (1957). However, he shifted towards catering to the tastes of the bourgeois audience with plays like Let’s Tell Lies (1961), The Rights of Women (1962), and Those Who Have Served (1962). Paso’s extensive and diverse body of work includes dramatic sketches, plays, poetry, historical pieces, tragedies, social critiques, comedies, and black humor. His works are characterized by witty dialogue and unique situations and characters.
Antonio Gala (1936- )
Antonio Gala is a renowned contemporary author who has cultivated various genres, including poetry, theater, novels, essays, and opinion columns, with great success. His plays are infused with poetic and often humorous touches. His success, evident from his early productions, has been more pronounced with the public than with critics. He began his theatrical career with The Green Fields of Eden (1963), a social and romantic play about a family forced to live in a family vault. He achieved great success with The Sun in the Nest (1965), November and a Bit of Grass (1967), The Good Days Lost (1972), The Harps Hung on the Trees (1974), and, most notably, Rings for a Lady (1973), which focuses on Jimena, the wife of El Cid. His later successes include the musical Carmen, Carmen (1988) and Friday Apples (2000).
Experimental Theater (Late 1960s)
In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, some authors associated with social theater began to explore new forms of expression beyond realism. This led to the emergence of experimental theater, which aimed to revitalize drama. The key features of this new theater include:
- Total Spectacle: Authors sought to create a holistic experience where the plot took a backseat to sound effects, lighting, body language, projections, and other elements borrowed from circus, puppet theater, cabaret, and parades.
- Symbolism: The realistic perspective of social theater gave way to symbolic drama, detached from reality.
- Non-Traditional Staging: Performances were no longer confined to the stage facing the audience.
- Symbolic Characters: Characters often represented concepts or institutions rather than individuals.
- Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal communication became as important as, or even more important than, verbal communication.
These new theater groups drew inspiration from contemporary foreign dramatic trends. Experimental theater in Spain gained momentum through the formation of numerous independent theater groups operating outside commercial channels, such as the Catalan group”Els Joglars”
Fernando Arrabal (1932- )
Fernando Arrabal is one of the most internationally recognized Spanish writers. Exiled in France, he writes in both French and Spanish, achieving considerable success. His plays are characterized by a blend of surreal, grotesque, and absurd elements, often with a provocative intent. According to Arrabal, his works incorporate”confusion, humor, terror, chance, and euphoria” He termed his body of work”Panic Theate” (derived from the Greek god Pan). His plays explore themes such as eroticism, opposition to war and tyranny, and the absurdity of religion.
From the 1980s to the Present
The past few decades have witnessed a proliferation of new playwrights in Spain, coexisting with established figures. This has resulted in a diverse theatrical landscape, with established authors continuing to produce work alongside emerging talents. Playwrights like Sastre, Antonio Gala, Francisco Nieva, and Fernando Arrabal have seen their works, to varying degrees, continue to be performed.
Early 20th Century Spanish Theater (1900-1936)
The early 20th century saw the continuation of theatrical trends from the late 19th century. Commercial theater catered to the bourgeoisie, offering light entertainment without delving into complex moral conflicts. In contrast, a minority trend of innovative theater emerged, seeking to move beyond the perceived vulgarity of commercial productions. Authors like Azorín, Unamuno, and Valle-Inclán championed this movement, advocating for symbolic or conceptual plots with metaphorical elements.
Neo-Romantic Drama
José Echegaray (1832-1916)
Echegaray epitomizes late-Romantic drama. He achieved immense popularity during his lifetime, captivating audiences with his dramatic themes and pathos-filled plots. His success culminated in the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1904. Among his notable works is The Great Galeoto (1881).
Realistic Theater
While the realistic novel of the 19th century enjoyed tremendous success and critical acclaim, this trend was not as readily reflected in theater. Authors like Benito Pérez Galdós and Joaquín Dicenta endeavored to develop a theater engaged with contemporary issues, achieving some success but not reaching the same heights as the realist novel. This theatrical movement continued into the 20th century, garnering significant public support.
Benito Pérez Galdós (1843-1920)
Although Galdós’s theatrical work did not reach the same level of quality as his novels, he made significant contributions to realistic theater, building upon trends from the late 19th century. He dedicated the last three decades of his life to theater, premiering twenty-one plays during his lifetime. His theatrical production began with three works that adapted the plots of some of his novels: Reality (1892), The Madwoman Inside (1893), and Angel Guerra (1893). Grandfather (1904) stands out as his most successful adaptation of a novel into a play. Galdós introduced innovations in dramatic structure, a novelty compared to the mainstream theater of the early 20th century.
Modernist Theater
In contrast to the realistic theater of Dicenta and Galdós, a modernist movement emerged, characterized by escapist tendencies that sought to evade reality. While the authors within this group were not homogenous in their approach, they shared a common goal: to renew theater and elevate its intellectual and artistic standing.
Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)
A leading figure of the Generation of ’98, Unamuno aimed to create an intellectual drama centered on the exploration of abstract ideas through dialogue, with minimal action. His plays featured simple sets, direct language, and a limited number of characters. Notable works by Unamuno include Phaedra (written in 1910, premiered in 1918), The Other (written in 1926, premiered in 1932), Brother Juan (1929), and Medea (1933).
José Martínez Ruiz, Azorín (1873-1967)
Similar to Unamuno, Azorín’s theater embarked on a path of renewal through experimentation and innovation in form, while maintaining ideologically conservative positions. Azorín broke with realism and embraced surrealism. Among his works is Old Spain (1926). Azorín’s main themes revolve around time, death, and happiness.
Ramón del Valle-Inclán (1866-1936)
Among the Generation of ’98 playwrights, Valle-Inclán stands out as one of the most significant, if not the most important, of 20th-century Spanish literature. The originality of Valle’s theater is unparalleled in Spanish literature, and his efforts to renew the genre led to the discovery of new forms of expression. The expressionism of his plots resulted in the development of the esperpento, a grotesque and satirical style prominently featured in some of his best works. Due to its variety and complexity, Valle’s theater defies easy categorization.
His early farces mark the emergence of the esperpento, where Valle abandons idealized representations of the world to delve into a degraded and flawed environment. This trend culminated in the tragicomedy Divine Words.
Pedro Muñoz Seca (1881-1936)
Muñoz Seca is primarily remembered for his play The Vengeance of Don Mendo. In this work, the historical and poetic theme is infused with comical and humorous elements. This represents a theatrical style that bridges the gap between the escapist historical poetic drama of modernist theater and the comedy of manners, exemplified by the Álvarez Quintero brothers.
Theater of the Masses
In addition to the aforementioned theatrical trends, the first half of the 20th century saw the development of a type of theater that drew large audiences to theaters. This theater primarily targeted the upper classes, particularly the bourgeoisie, and became a dominant form of entertainment during this period.
Jacinto Benavente (1866-1954)
Jacinto Benavente is undoubtedly the most representative author of this trend. Since the publication of Another’s Nest in 1894, he gained a loyal following with his conservative yet open-to-renewal plots. Benavente’s style became unmistakable, and his theater was highly regarded for its technical skill and finesse. He often incorporated subtle criticism or irony to denounce, in a cordial manner, the vices and negative aspects of his society. This criticism was primarily directed at the social classes that constituted his audience: the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie. However, the tone was generally superficial and rarely moralizing. Through this approach, Benavente became the leading playwright of his time, entertaining the public while offering gentle critiques without causing offense.
The Machado Brothers
Manuel and Antonio Machado collaborated on seven plays between 1926 and 1932. Five of these were written in verse: Fortune’s Misfortunes (1926), Juan de Mañara (1927), The Knight of Olmedo (1928), Another Miracle of Saint Anthony (1929), and La Lola se va a los puertos (1929). Two were written in prose: The Man Who Died in the War (premiered in 1941) and Desdichas de la fortuna o Julianillo Valcárcel (1926). This was a popular theater that catered to the tastes of the time, although it has lost much of its appeal today. It did not significantly contribute to the renewal of Spanish theater or enhance the prestige of its authors. The action is minimal and often replaced by narration, with characters recounting events rather than enacting them.
Enrique Jardiel Poncela (1901-1952)
Jardiel Poncela played a role in elevating the quality of comedic theater from the late 1920s onwards. Titles like A Spring Night Without Sleep (1927) and Four Hearts with Brake and Reverse (1936) established him as a leading playwright of the era, alongside Benavente. His plays were regularly performed in theaters and attracted diverse audiences. His dramas often revolved around bourgeois themes, incorporating elements of poetic comedy and experimentation with theatrical conventions. Jardiel Poncela continued to achieve success on stage after the Civil War.
Poetic Drama of the Generation of ’27
Poetry was the most prominent genre cultivated by the authors of the Generation of ’27, but it was not their sole focus. Some members of this group also engaged in theatrical writing.
Federico García Lorca (1898-1936)
Lorca is undoubtedly the most prominent representative of the theatrical trend within the Generation of ’27 and one of the most important playwrights in the history of Spanish literature. If one were to choose a single author from the first half of the 20th century, it would likely be Lorca. His works continue to be performed today with the same success they enjoyed in the 1930s, and studies on Lorca’s plays abound worldwide. In his works, Lorca pays particular attention to the female world, as well as themes of frustrated or impossible love.
He began his theatrical career with The Butterfly’s Evil Spell (1920). Two of his plays are classified as”Granada Play” as they are set in the author’s hometown: Mariana Pineda (1923, premiered in 1927) and Doña Rosita the Spinster (1935). Lorca’s most renowned works are three rural tragedies that focus on the female experience: Blood Wedding (1933), Yerma (1934), and The House of Bernarda Alba (1936). The House of Bernarda Alba, published shortly before his assassination in 1936, is considered his masterpiece.
Rafael Alberti (1902-1999)
Alberti also dedicated part of his creative output to theater. His most significant play is The Scarecrow (1944), which incorporates grotesque elements reminiscent of Valle-Inclán’s style. The Uninhabited Man (1930) is a surreal tragedy exploring creation, life, and the allure of a man condemned to death. In the latter half of the 20th century, Alberti wrote Night of War in the Prado Museum (1956), a play addressing political issues during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939).
Miguel Hernández (1910-1942)
Hernández, an author closely associated with the Generation of ’27, produced a noteworthy body of dramatic work, albeit relatively brief. He composed three verse plays influenced by Calderón’s autos sacramentales: Who Has Seen You and Who Sees You and the Shadow of What You Were (1933), The Peasant of the Air (1937), and Shepherd of Death (1937). He also wrote a series of short prose pieces titled Theater of War (1937), which includes The Tail, The Man, The Shelter, and The Seats. These works were written with a clear political purpose, reflecting the author’s republican ideology.