20th Century Transformations: Wars, Revolutions, and Economic Upheavals
The Dawn of the 20th Century
A World in Transition
At the beginning of the 20th century, the capitalist system was rapidly expanding, centered in Western Europe, the United States, and Japan. The Second Industrial Revolution exacerbated the divide between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, and between industrialized and non-industrialized nations. Imperialism led to the First World War in 1914, a conflict that originated in Europe but ultimately involved countries worldwide. The war’s impact was felt most acutely by workers on the home front.
The Aftermath of War
By 1919, the world had been irrevocably transformed. Electricity, cars, and movies became increasingly common, marking a significant shift in daily life. The Russian Revolution of 1917 unfolded in two phases: the February Revolution, a bourgeois attempt to establish a liberal parliamentary system, and the October Revolution, a socialist uprising that ultimately prevailed. Socialist leaders believed that the revolution could succeed even in an economically underdeveloped country. Following the Russian Revolution, communist parties, supported by the USSR, emerged in many countries, inspiring hope among workers. However, under Stalin’s rule, the revolution shifted away from its initial focus on workers’ interests.
The Crisis of Liberalism
The Rise of Authoritarianism
The achievements of the bourgeoisie—the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, and liberal states—were challenged after the First World War and the Russian Revolution. The liberal system entered a period of crisis. The League of Nations, created to safeguard peace, ultimately failed. The United States emerged as a global superpower, and Japan as a capitalist power. The economic collapse of 1929, originating in the U.S., had a profound impact on the capitalist world, leading to authoritarian and anti-liberal regimes in several countries, including the fascist regimes in Italy (1923) and Germany (1933). The middle class saw these anti-democratic systems as a way to suppress worker movements and revolutionary activity. German Nazism, with its aggressive imperialist policies, posed a serious international threat, pushing the world toward another war.
The First World War and Its Aftermath
The Spark that Ignited the War
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo, Bosnia, on July 28, 1914, triggered the First World War. This event marked the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. The war’s underlying causes included the assassination, existing tensions and rivalries between states, and imperialist policies.
The Economics of Imperialism
Imperialism, driven by expansionism and the pursuit of hegemony, led the bourgeoisie of major powers to compete for capital supremacy. This competition manifested in the need for cheap raw materials, which fueled colonialism, and access to consumer markets, resulting in fierce competition. Politically, the bourgeoisie aligned the state’s interests with their own economic goals, fostering animosity between nations. The press played a role in manipulating public opinion by promoting patriotic and nationalistic sentiments.
The Military Buildup
Major powers amassed large armies and advanced weaponry, preparing for war. They formed opposing alliances: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary) and the Triple Entente (Great Britain, France, and Russia). The Balkan Wars further destabilized the region. Austria-Hungary used the assassination, perpetrated by Gavrilo Princip, who was protected by Serbia, as a pretext to accuse Serbia and curb its influence over the Slavs within the empire. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which was rejected, leading to a declaration of war on July 18. Russia mobilized its troops in support of Serbia, prompting Austria-Hungary to seek reinforcements from Germany. France followed suit, and Germany attacked France, drawing Great Britain into the conflict.
The Warring Sides
The Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. The Allies included Great Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, Belgium, Italy, Japan, Romania, Greece, and eventually the United States, whose involvement proved crucial to victory.
Phases of the War
War of Movement (1914)
Germany’s attack on France was halted at the Battle of Marne. France’s attack on Germany in Alsace was also stopped. Russia made little progress against Germany and Austria-Hungary. The war, initially portrayed as a heroic adventure, quickly descended into a brutal reality of hunger and death.
War of Attrition (1915-1916)
This phase was characterized by heavy artillery bombardments aimed at destroying enemy territory. The war became industrialized with the introduction of tanks and machine guns. The conflict extended to the economy, disrupting trade and causing widespread suffering among the population. Women entered the workforce to replace men fighting at the front.
The Critical Year (1917)
The social situation in warring countries deteriorated drastically. Revolutions erupted, including the February Revolution, which overthrew the Tsar, and the October Revolution, which brought the Bolsheviks to power. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed in 1918, brought peace between Russia and Germany.
The End of the War (1918)
The Ottoman Empire was occupied by the Allies. Austria-Hungary dissolved, giving rise to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Germany was defeated and signed a peace treaty with the Allies, marking the end of the war.
Consequences of War and Peace Treaties
Europe suffered immense losses, with 10 million dead and widespread destruction in cities, agriculture, and industry. Women continued to work due to the shortage of men. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points, which included arms reduction and the creation of the League of Nations. The Treaty of Versailles, signed with Germany in 1919, forced Germany to cede territory to France, Belgium, and Poland, pay war reparations to the Allies, reduce its army, and accept guilt for the war. Peace treaties were also signed with Austria and Hungary. The German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman empires collapsed.
The League of Nations and International Relations
A Flawed Institution
Following Wilson’s proposal, the League of Nations was founded to prevent another war. It included signatories of the Treaty of Versailles and neutral countries. However, the League was weakened by the absence of the United States, which feared losing its freedom of action. The League’s structure included a General Assembly, whose members met annually, and a Council with a variable number of members (including France, Great Britain, Japan, and Italy). A General Secretary, assisted by officials, oversaw the League’s operations from its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. The League’s role was limited, and it ultimately failed to prevent the Second World War.
Post-War International Problems
Germany struggled to pay war reparations, plunging into an economic crisis. Border disputes arose between the successor states of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) lost eastern territories, which came under British and French control, leading to conflict between Arabs and Jews.
Changes Leading to the Second World War
The economic crisis of 1929 triggered new conflicts. The Nazis rose to power in Germany in 1933, pursuing imperialist policies. Japan embarked on expansionist ambitions, leading to conflicts with China. The Spanish Civil War in 1936 foreshadowed the Second World War.
The Russian Revolution and the USSR
The February and October Revolutions
In February 1917, Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown. In October, the Bolsheviks seized power.
Pre-Revolutionary Russia
Russia was a vast empire, occupying one-sixth of the world’s landmass, with a population of 175 million in 1914, primarily agricultural. Industrialization and capitalism were emerging, but the country remained largely underdeveloped. Russian society was structured hierarchically, with the Tsar as the absolute monarch, supported by the Church, followed by the wealthy nobility, who held power over the peasants. Peasants constituted the majority of the population and lived in poverty. Serfdom was abolished only in 1861. Industrial workers, often former peasants or their children, endured low wages. The liberal bourgeoisie, comprising traders and industrialists, experienced growing wealth. Nicholas II ascended to the throne in 1894, adopting a constitutional monarchy. Political parties emerged, including the Kadets, representing the bourgeoisie and middle class, who sought reforms but not revolution, and the Mensheviks, who advocated for a liberal regime to pave the way for socialism. The Bolsheviks aimed to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat through violent means, liberating the peasants.
The 1905 Revolution
A general strike and revolutionary movement erupted in St. Petersburg in 1905, led by Soviets (committees) and workers’ assemblies. The Tsar responded with brutal force on “Bloody Sunday,” killing many protesters. He subsequently agreed to govern with a parliament (Duma) and recognize social rights, but these reforms ultimately failed.
Bolsheviks and Lenin
Lenin, a Marxist socialist leader, was exiled along with the Bolsheviks to Finland. Lenin emphasized the role of the party as the “vanguard of the proletariat.” He believed that revolution was possible even in less industrialized countries, contrary to Marx’s theory.
The Fall of the Tsar (February 1917)
Russia’s involvement in the First World War, coupled with economic hardship, led to widespread discontent. Protests began in St. Petersburg on February 23. The army joined the workers, and the Duma formed a new government under Prince Lvov. Dual power emerged, with the provisional government seeking to continue the war and the Petrograd Soviet advocating for its end. Lenin returned from exile in April and presented his April Theses, calling for an end to the war, empowering workers, and establishing a Soviet republic.
The Bolshevik Revolution (October 1917)
The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized the Winter Palace, the seat of the provisional government. They implemented decrees suppressing large estates, establishing worker control over factories, promoting equality and self-determination for all peoples of Russia, nationalizing banks, and ending the war. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed with Germany in 1918. Russia became the Russian Federal Socialist Republic, with the Soviets holding all state power.
From War Communism to the NEP
The revolution was followed by a civil war between the Bolshevik Red Army, organized by Trotsky, and the White Army, composed of Tsarist loyalists, Kadets, Mensheviks, and foreign powers. The Bolsheviks established the Communist International to spread socialist revolution. War Communism, a system of centralized economic control and resource requisitioning, was implemented to address the crisis. The civil war resulted in millions of deaths and widespread destruction. In 1921, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), which partially restored private enterprise and helped to revive the economy. Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
Stalin and Stalinist Bureaucracy
Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party, consolidated power after Lenin’s death. Trotsky, who advocated for the international spread of revolution, became a leading opponent of Stalin. Stalin expelled Trotsky from the USSR in 1929 and established a bureaucratic system. Stalinism aimed to build socialism in one country, suppressing all opposition. The Soviets lost their decision-making power. Stalin purged members of the Communist Party and implemented collectivization of agriculture in 1928, aiming to rapidly industrialize the USSR.
Trotsky’s Critique of Stalinism
Trotsky criticized Stalinism, referring to it as “proletarian Bonapartism.” He founded the Fourth International in exile and was assassinated by a Stalinist agent in Mexico.
The Crash of 1929 and the Global Crisis
The Rise of the United States
The United States emerged as a major creditor nation after the First World War. The 1920s, known as the “Roaring Twenties,” were a period of economic prosperity and cultural dynamism. However, this era came to an abrupt end with the stock market crash of October 1929.
The Crash of 1929
On “Black Thursday,” billions of dollars were lost in the Wall Street crash. The crash was caused by overproduction, speculation, and the dependence of the global economy on the U.S. The crisis led to a decline in industrial production worldwide, impacting countries like Chile, which relied on exports of nitrate and copper. The USSR, with its planned economy, was largely insulated from the crisis and experienced growth in agricultural and industrial production.
Social and Ideological Impact
The Great Depression resulted in mass unemployment, wage cuts, increased poverty, and social inequality. The crisis shook faith in liberalism. John Maynard Keynes published his “General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money,” offering new economic perspectives.
The New Deal
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, implemented in 1933, aimed to address the crisis. The New Deal involved financial reforms, agricultural adjustments, and investment in public works to create jobs. While the New Deal mitigated some of the worst effects of the Depression, unemployment remained high until the Second World War.
The Rise of Fascism
A European Phenomenon
Fascism emerged in Europe amid social unrest. Fascist groups and political parties, led by figures like Mussolini, used violence to defend the bourgeois order and suppress worker movements. Fascism lacked a clear ideology but emphasized nationalism, militarism, and authoritarianism. Fascists often used racist rhetoric and glorified war.
Italian Fascism
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