20th Century Western World History, Thought, and Aesthetics

Posted on Oct 6, 2024 in Latin

Historical Periods of the 20th Century

The Western World’s Transformation

The 20th century witnessed a profound transformation of the Western world, marked by events like two world wars, the Russian Revolution, and the Cold War. These events shaped distinct historical periods:

• Pre-World War I (1900-1914): Economic expansion and artistic splendor coincided with burgeoning workers’ movements and intellectual questioning of bourgeois consciousness.
• World War I (1914-1918): Sparked by colonial rivalries, the war shifted global hegemony from Europe to America. Concurrently, the communist revolution erupted in Russia in 1917.
• Interwar Period (1920-1939): Beginning with the Roaring Twenties’ economic exuberance, the era saw industrialization create social tensions that culminated in the 1929 crash. The 1930s witnessed the rise of totalitarian regimes and declining support for liberal democracies.
• World War II (1939-1945): Germany’s invasion of Poland ignited global conflict. U.S. intervention, culminating in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ended the war and ushered in the nuclear age.
• The Cold War: Post-war agreements divided the Western world into communist and capitalist blocs, locked in an arms race and space race.
• The 1960s and Beyond: Economic development and a growing middle class fueled consumerism and the media’s power. Critical and counter-revolutionary movements emerged, exemplified by the events of May ’68 in France. The 1970s energy crisis fostered conservatism and postmodern skepticism towards political ideologies.
• End of the Cold War: The fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) and German reunification (1990) dramatically reshaped the political landscape.

20th Century Thought

Three major schools of thought—existentialism, psychoanalysis, and Marxism—often intertwined, characterized 20th-century thought:

• Existentialism: Rooted in 19th-century thinkers like Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Bergson, existentialism, with key figure Martin Heidegger, emphasized individual freedom and responsibility in a world devoid of inherent meaning. This freedom, coupled with the inevitability of death, generated anguish and despair.
• Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis explored the unconscious mind, the repository of repressed desires and impulses. Freud posited that the unconscious, expressed through symbols in dreams and art, profoundly influences behavior and creativity.
• Marxism: Karl Marx’s Marxism offered a materialist interpretation of society, emphasizing economic production and class struggle as drivers of historical change. Marxism envisioned communism as the final stage of social evolution, marked by the disappearance of private property and class conflict.
• Postmodernism: In contrast to rationalistic interpretations, skeptical and relativistic trends like postmodernism emerged, challenging reason’s capacity to fully comprehend the world.

20th Century Aesthetics

Numerous artistic currents, broadly categorized as existential, experimental, and social, rapidly succeeded each other:

• Existential Art: Reflecting the anxieties of existence, particularly the fear of death, this trend was prominent in the early and mid-20th century. Key figures include Franz Kafka, French existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, and Spanish writers of the Generation of ’98.
• Experimental Art: Driven by a desire to break with tradition and innovate, this trend culminated in the avant-garde movements of the 1920s and 1960s. Experimental literature flourished in the 1920s with poets, novelists, and playwrights, in the 1950s with the Theatre of the Absurd, and in the 1960s and 1970s with counter-culture movements.
• Social Art: Focused on social and political issues, this trend was often linked to Marxism and flourished during periods of conflict. Prominent examples include Bertolt Brecht and the Lost Generation during the 1930s Depression, Italian neorealism and the Angry Young Men after World War II, and socialist realism in communist countries, exemplified by Maxim Gorky.

The 20th Century in Spain

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) profoundly impacted Spain’s 20th century, dividing it into distinct periods:

• Pre-Civil War (1900-1936): This period encompassed the Regency of María Cristina, the reign of Alfonso XIII, the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, and the Second Republic.
• Post-Civil War: This era included the Franco dictatorship (1939-1975) and the transition to democracy.

Pre-Civil War (1900-1936)

• Regency of María Cristina: Spain lost its last overseas colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
• Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931): Marked by social and regional tensions, exacerbated by World War I, labor unrest, and the war in Morocco.
• Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930): A coup led to the suspension of the constitution and political freedoms.
• Second Republic (1931-1936): A period of instability marked by profound changes and resistance from conservative and radical factions.
• Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): A military revolt against the republican government plunged Spain into a tragic conflict.

Post-Civil War

• Franco Dictatorship (1939-1975):
  • 1940s and 1950s: Post-war isolation and authoritarian rule marked by political repression.
  • 1960s onward: Economic development and international engagement led to some liberalization.
• Democracy (1978-): Following a transition period involving pacts between Francoists and anti-Francoists, Spain transitioned to democracy with a new constitution, integration into Europe, and participation in international agencies.

Modernism

Modernism, a rebellious and renewing force, manifested as a vital attitude and aesthetic movement. Associated with bohemianism, it rejected social norms, embraced provocation, and scorned vulgarity. Modernist literature, particularly poetry and poetic prose, featured a new poetic language and intimate themes. Key figures include Antonio Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Valle-Inclán, and Rubén Darío.

Late 19th-century European culture, marked by spiritual disorientation and the “crisis of European consciousness,” influenced Modernism and the Generation of ’98. These movements reflected the vitalism of Nietzsche, the existentialism of Kierkegaard, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, and artistic influences like Impressionism and Symbolism, along with writers like Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Ibsen, and Maeterlinck.

Characteristics of Spanish Modernism

• Diverse Influences:
  • Romanticism: Rejection of reality, individualism, subjectivism, and preference for decaying environments.
  • French Poetry: Formal perfection, evocative symbols, and identification with landscape and emotion.
  • American Modernism: Brightness and sensuality.
• Romantic Themes:
  • Rejection of reality and a search for escape or intimacy.
  • Existential anxieties: Anguish and the desire to escape consciousness.
• Innovative Style: Renovation of meter, language, and expressive resources, including unusual line and stanza combinations, free verse, learned and evocative vocabulary, and synaesthesia.
• Sensory Language: Musicality, chromaticism, and plasticity achieved through phonic devices, rich vocabulary, and suggestive symbols.
• Preferred Genres: Lyrical poetry and poetic prose.
• Key Writers: Antonio Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Valle-Inclán, Rubén Darío, Manuel Machado, Salvador Rueda, and Francisco Villaespesa.

The Generation of ’98

The Generation of ’98, also known as the Group of ’98, comprised writers who expressed disillusionment with the Restoration Society and advocated for social, cultural, and aesthetic regeneration. Inspired by reformist thinkers, they focused on Spanish society, exploring Spain’s “soul” through its historical and literary origins. They also reflected the era’s existential pessimism and subjectivism. Favoring the essay, they sought a personal style distinct from traditionalism. Key figures include Unamuno, Azorín, Baroja, and Maeztu, with Machado and Valle-Inclán sometimes included.

The term “Generation of ’98” originated with Azorín, referring to writers critical of society and art, including Unamuno, Baroja, Maeztu, Darío, Valle-Inclán, Jacinto Benavente, and Azorín himself. However, the group’s diverse trajectories led to debate about its coherence as a literary generation, hence the alternative term “Group of ’98.”

Characteristics of the Generation of ’98

• Intellectual Influences: Enlightenment thinkers, Mariano José de Larra, liberal reformers, and Krausists.
• Ideological Evolution: From radical youth positions (anarchism or socialism) to more conservative stances in maturity.
• Social Criticism: A focus on social and cultural problems, unlike the Modernists.
• The “Spanish Question”: A preoccupation with defining Spanish identity, particularly through Castile’s landscape, myths, and literary history.
• Existential Concerns: Anguish, distrust of reason, and subjectivism.
• Aesthetic Simplicity: A rejection of traditional rhetoric in favor of personal expression.
• Preferred Genre: The essay, though the novel was also important.

Antonio Machado (1875-1939)

Machado’s work, culminating 19th-century poetic trends, evolved from symbolist modernism to new forms of expression, characterized by simplicity. His poetry and committed stance during the war influenced later writers.

Life

Born in Seville to a liberal family, Machado moved to Madrid at eight. He married Leonor Izquierdo, who died in 1912.

Work

Machado’s poetic career has three stages:

• First Stage: Soledades (1903) and Soledades, Galerías y Otros Poemas (1907) exemplify symbolist modernism, blending romanticism and French symbolism. Intimate lyrics express sadness and disgust through symbols like autumn evenings and old cityscapes. The recurring theme is time, its passage, and the nostalgia for the past.
• Second Stage: Campos de Castilla (1912) marks a shift towards a less intimate, more historical style. The Castilian landscape becomes central, aligning Machado with the Generation of ’98. The landscape evokes reflections on Spanish history and identity. Poemas Completos (1917) expands on these themes, adding poems about Leonor and Andalusia.
• Third Stage: Nuevas Canciones (1924) features proverbs and songs reflecting on themes like relativism, time, God, and social criticism. Later works include love poems (Canciones a Guiomar) and war poems.

Theatre of the Period

• High Comedy: Characterized by contemporary settings, mild social criticism, and elegant language, exemplified by Jacinto Benavente.
• Poetic Drama: Initially modernist, it evolved towards historical romantic drama, with Eduardo Marquina and the Machado brothers as key figures.
• Theatre of Manners: Depicted picturesque and humorous scenes with traditional language, represented by Carlos Arniches, Serafín and Joaquín Álvarez Quintero.
• Astrakhan: Pedro Muñoz Seca’s humorous style based on absurd situations and dialogue.

Ramón del Valle-Inclán (1866-1936)

Valle-Inclán, writing poetry, novels, and plays, rejected realism. He evolved from modernism to the grotesque, an aesthetic akin to Expressionism, caricaturing reality. His esperpento, a unique dramatic style, epitomized modern anti-realist theatre.

Life

Born in Villanueva de Arosa, Valle-Inclán led a bohemian life. He protested against Primo de Rivera and held cultural positions during the Republic.

Narrative and Prose

• Novels: Sonatas exemplify modernist prose. The Carlist War trilogy represents a transitional phase. The grotesque style culminates in the Tirano Banderas.
• Poetry: Collected in La Lámpara Maravillosa, his poetry ranges from modernism to the grotesque.

Theatre

Valle-Inclán’s theatre also evolved from modernism (El Marqués de Bradomín) to the grotesque, exemplified by Luces de Bohemia and Martes de Carnaval. The grotesque style, distorting reality, blended tragic and comic elements, reflecting a critical view of Spanish society.

Luces de Bohemia by Valle-Inclán

Introduction

Published in 1920 and expanded in 1924, Luces de Bohemia, inspired by the life of modernist writer Alejandro Sawa, depicts Max Estrella’s nocturnal journey through a cruel, unjust, and absurd society.

Themes

The play offers a corrosive vision of Spain, referencing historical events and reflecting on literature and the writer’s commitment.

Structure

The play adheres to the unity of time and depicts a single urban setting. Its structure is symmetrical, with a presentation, a central journey through Madrid, a return home, and an epilogue.

Characters

The play features over fifty characters, often depicted as puppets or dolls. Max Estrella and a few others have moments of dignity, while the Catalan anarchist and his mother are individualized.

Aesthetics

Valle-Inclán distorts reality through language and action, using vulgarity, degrading characters, juxtaposing tragic and grotesque elements, and employing distinct speech styles.

Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)

Unamuno, a prominent intellectual, addressed regeneration and existential concerns in his work. His passionate and expressive style aimed to provoke thought.

Work

Unamuno’s work, spanning all genres, is unified by recurring themes and a personal style. His early work focuses on regeneration, while later works explore religious and existential themes.

Drama and Poetry

Unamuno’s philosophical dramas, like Fedra and La Esfinge, resemble classical tragedies, exploring existential issues. His poetry addresses the landscape and existential concerns, notably in Poesías and El Cristo de Velázquez.

Novels

Unamuno’s novels, or “nivolas,” prioritize ideas over plot, focusing on existential conflicts expressed through dialogue and internal monologue. Key works include Niebla, Abel Sánchez, and San Manuel Bueno, mártir.

Essays

Unamuno’s essays, often vehement in tone, reflect on Spain and existential concerns. Early essays criticize Spanish reality, while later works defend Spanish tradition and explore the conflict between reason and faith.

José Martínez Ruiz, Azorín (1873-1967)

Azorín, initially a critical regenacionista writer, evolved towards an aesthetic and existential focus. His simple, precise, and evocative style emphasized time, landscape, and melancholy.

Life

Initially radical, Azorín later adopted conservative views.

Work

Azorín’s essays, novels, and plays explore time’s passage and the permanence of landscapes and feelings. His melancholic descriptions, mainly of Castile, reflect the interplay between landscape and mood.

Essays

Azorín’s essays focus on landscape and literary criticism. Early essays critique Spanish reality, while later works celebrate Spanish tradition. His literary criticism offers subjective interpretations of Spanish classics and introduces the concept of the Generation of ’98.

Pío Baroja (1872-1956)

Baroja, embodying the era’s pessimism, evolved from anarchism to skepticism. He excelled as a novelist, particularly in character portrayal, descriptions, and dialogue.

Life

Critical and honest, Baroja was interested in the marginalized.

Work

Baroja viewed the novel as encompassing all genres. His novels, reflecting his pessimism, feature a broad social scope, numerous characters, and diverse settings. His characters are often asocial or rebellious, struggling against mediocrity or succumbing to apathy.

Novels

Baroja’s novels, often grouped into trilogies, include La lucha por la vida, Tierra vasca, and El árbol de la ciencia.

Requirements for a Generation of Authors

1. Age difference of no more than 15 years.
2. Uniform education.
3. Self-taught nature.
4. Participation in collective acts.
5. Shared generational experience (e.g., loss of colonies).
6. Ideological leadership.
7. Shared language features.
8. Stagnation of the previous generation.

Characteristics of Modernism

Modernism encompasses late 19th and early 20th-century European and American trends. Influential movements include Romanticism, French Parnassianism and Symbolism, and Hispanic-American Modernism.

Themes of Modernism

• External themes (legends, exotic locales).
• Internal themes:
  • Romantic malaise (spleen).
  • Escapism.
  • Cosmopolitanism.
  • Love and eroticism.
  • American and indigenous themes.
  • Hispanic themes.

Language of Modernism

Linguistic enrichment, use of literary figures, chromaticism, musicality, and ornamental style characterize Modernist language. Metrics are innovative, with variations on traditional forms and free verse.

Differences Between Modernism and the Generation of ’98

Conclusions

• The Generation of ’98 and Modernism share common ground as a historical generation.
• The Generation of ’98 has distinct characteristics, especially in its youth.
• Authors should be studied in their full literary evolution.

Machado’s Themes

Machado defined poetry as “essentiality and temporality,” emphasizing the expression of personal essence and the emotion of time. His poetry portrays a tormented, doubtful individual.

Themes

Time, sleep, dreams, love (with three stages: need, awareness, and memory), and religion are key themes in Machado’s work.

Differences Between Machado’s Soledades and Campos de Castilla

Influence on the Silver Age

Initially overshadowed by Juan Ramón Jiménez, Machado gained recognition in the 1950s for his simple, committed poetry. He is now considered a major 20th-century poet, admired for his treatment of human problems and identification with the people.

Latin American Modernism: Rubén Darío

Brief Biography

Born Félix Rubén García Sarmiento in 1867 in Nicaragua, Darío was influenced by French authors. Azul (1888) marked the beginning of his modernist period. He gained international recognition, worked in Buenos Aires, and served as a correspondent in Spain. He later held diplomatic posts and died in Nicaragua in 1916.

Literary Work

Darío’s work embodies key modernist themes: refinement, sophistication, doubt, the role of poetry as a substitute for religion, and the transmutation of experience into aesthetic harmony. His poetry explores diverse themes, including love, eroticism, exoticism, time, and death. Key works include Azul, Prosas Profanas, and Cantos de Vida y Esperanza.

Works by Rubén Darío

• Early works: Imitations of Bécquer, Campoamor, and Victor Hugo.
• Azul (1888): Blends sensory delight and eroticism. Marks the beginning of his modernist period.
• Prosas Profanas (1896): Represents the triumph of modernism in Spanish. Showcases Darío’s innovative use of metrics and rhythms. Expresses a hatred for life and the time he was born into.
• Cantos de Vida y Esperanza (1905): Darío’s masterpiece, reflecting a crisis of aestheticism and a return to social concerns. Includes the autobiographical poem “Yo soy aquel que ayer no más decía…” and the poem “Lo fatal.”
• Later works: Heterogeneous collection of poems from various periods.
• Prose works: Includes fantastic stories reflecting his interest in theosophy and occult doctrines. Highlights include Los Raros (1896), España Contemporánea (1901), and Tierras Solares (1904).

“Sonatina” by Rubén Darío

“Sonatina,” composed of eight Alexandrine sextuplets, features a marked rhythm and musicality. The poem explores the princess’s sadness and her search for her prince. The poem’s strength lies in its ascending force and resolution.