A History of Europe: Society, Revolution, and War
Stratified Society
Characteristics
- Society divided into estates.
- Movement between estates was impossible.
- Inequality between estates, both fiscal and legal.
Groups
- Privileged: High and low nobility, high and low clergy.
- Underprivileged: Peasants, burghers, and artisans.
Characteristics of the High Nobility
- Possessed large tracts of land.
- Occupied important positions in government and administration.
- Lived off their incomes.
- Descended from high aristocracy.
Characteristics of the Low Nobility
- Limited economic resources.
- Held lesser noble titles.
Characteristics of the High Clergy
- Came from noble families.
- Held important positions and titles.
- Good economic standing.
Characteristics of the Low Clergy
- Came from the common people.
- Poor economic standing.
Characteristics of Farmers
- Limited resources.
- Those with land were under feudal tenure.
- Represented 80% of the population, but only 10% were landowners.
Characteristics of the Bourgeoisie
- Gained wealth during the Old Regime.
- Lacked political influence.
- Became key players in the 19th century.
- Were among the most discontented social groups.
Characteristics of Artisans
- Social status determined by their position within the guild.
The Enlightenment
A cultural and intellectual movement originating in 18th-century France and spreading throughout Europe, emphasizing reason to understand the world and dispel ignorance.
Features
- Valued reason as the primary problem-solving tool.
- Optimistic belief in progress.
- Promoted education to combat ignorance.
- Emphasis on nature.
- Development of Renaissance anthropocentrism.
- Critical stance against intolerance and prejudice.
- Advocated for the state as an instrument for public welfare.
- Spread through salons and the free press.
The First Industrial Revolution
Beginnings
The cotton textile industry became a leading sector after incorporating key innovations. In 1733, Kay invented the flying shuttle, revolutionizing cotton weaving. Later came Hargreaves’ spinning jenny and Arkwright’s water frame in 1779. Crompton’s mule combined both.
Factors Contributing to Success
- Importation of cotton fabric.
- Large cotton plantations in North America provided cheap raw materials.
- Absence of guild restrictions.
Expansion
During the first half of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution spread to other European countries. In Britain, the process was driven by private initiative, while state intervention played a larger role elsewhere. Key factors included state intervention and mining, leading to industrial concentration.
Factors Driving the Process
- Proclamation of independence in 1831.
- Creation of the Société Générale.
- Rapid railroad construction.
- Acquisition of cinema monopoly.
The French Revolution
Facing a financial crisis, Louis XVI’s finance ministers proposed tax reforms, including a new income tax for all, including the privileged. This led to resistance from the privileged classes, forcing Louis XVI to convene the Estates-General.
Stages
- Revolt of the Privileged (1787)
- Convening of the Estates-General (1789)
- National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)
- Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
- National Convention (1792-1793) and Jacobin Republic (1793-1794)
- The Directory (1794-1799)
- The Consulate (1799-1804)
German Unification
Origins
A desire for unity, fueled by shared language, culture, and a growing bourgeoisie, led to the Prussian customs union in 1834. Two options emerged: a Greater German empire led by Austria or a smaller, Prussian-led Germany excluding Austria.
Stages
- War of the Duchies against Denmark (1863): After the Austro-Prussian victory, Holstein came under Austrian control and Schleswig under Prussian control.
- Victory over Austria (1866): Austria’s defeat at Sadowa excluded them from German unification. The North German Confederation was formed around Prussia.
- War against France (1870): Prussian strength fueled Franco-Prussian rivalry. After victory at Sedan, Bismarck proclaimed the Second German Reich, with Wilhelm I as Kaiser.
Marxism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels founded the first organizations based on scientific socialism. Marx lived in exile, initially in liberal circles, but concluded that liberalism couldn’t resolve capitalist contradictions. He wrote The Communist Manifesto in 1848 and co-founded the First International. Marx differentiated between economic, political, and ideological struggles. His concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat aimed to transform the capitalist system into a socialist one, abolishing classes and private ownership of the means of production. These ideas led to the creation of socialist parties.
The First World War
Causes
- Socio-economic: Financial competition.
- Political: Territorial rivalries, such as between Germany and France over Alsace-Lorraine.
- Diplomatic: Alliance blocks (Triple Entente and Triple Alliance) and the failure of diplomacy.
- Ideological: Confidence in victory, fueled by the press and extreme nationalism.
Military Alliances
- Triple Entente: Russia, France, Great Britain, later joined by Serbia and Belgium.
- Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, later joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
Features
- Use of new weapons (machine guns, artillery, poison gas, tanks, aircraft).
- New tactics (trench warfare).
- Industry geared towards war production, incurring huge expenses.
- Total war.
Cause
Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Serbia’s rejection led to Austria-Hungary declaring war. Russia intervened, prompting Germany to support Austria-Hungary. Germany invaded Belgium to attack France, leading Britain to declare war on Germany.
The NEP (New Economic Policy)
A mixed system in the Soviet Union allowing a free market while maintaining state control of key economic sectors.
- Moved away from wartime production controls.
- Halted land nationalization and collectivization.
- Replaced forced grain deliveries with a tax in kind.
- Maintained state control of strategic sectors.
- Improved living conditions.
- Increased production.
- Resurgence of economic sectors.
The USSR
In 1922, the Russian Federal Republic, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Transcaucasian Republic formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Each republic had administrative autonomy, while foreign policy and economic planning were centralized.
The Crash of 1929
In spring 1929, the economy showed signs of weakness, with sharp price fluctuations. The Federal Reserve hesitated between warning of a crash, raising interest rates, or waiting. They chose to wait, but the situation worsened. On October 24 (Black Thursday), massive share selling occurred. A brief recovery was followed by the crash on October 29 (Black Tuesday).
The Great Depression
The crisis affected:
- Financial system: Banks stopped lending and demanded loan repayments.
- Consumers: Reduced demand led to falling production and unemployment.
- Agriculture: Falling prices and demand led to bankruptcies.
The Origins of National Socialism
The Creation of Nazi Germany
Hitler joined the German Workers’ Party in 1920, which became the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP). Its 25-point program outlined Nazi objectives, including antisemitism, xenophobia, racism, anti-parliamentarism, and anti-Marxism. Hitler became party leader in 1921 and adopted a strategy of violence, using the SA paramilitary force. A failed coup in 1923 led to his imprisonment, where he wrote Mein Kampf. The Great Depression boosted NSDAP support, and by 1932, they held 230 Reichstag seats.
The Rise to Power
Conservative indifference and leftist division, combined with Nazi tactics, led to the Weimar Republic’s collapse. The Nazis exploited resentment over the Treaty of Versailles and the economic crisis. By 1932, the NSDAP gained significant support, and the SA intensified street violence. This led to Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor in 1933.
The National Socialist State
Once Chancellor, Hitler consolidated power:
- Reichstag Fire: The Nazis blamed communists for the fire, declared a state of emergency, suspended rights, and won the subsequent election. They persecuted opponents and created the Gestapo.
- Night of the Long Knives: The SS eliminated SA leaders, solidifying Hitler’s control.
- Hitler as Führer: After Hindenburg’s death, Hitler assumed presidential powers under the Führerprinzip.
Objectives of Nazi Germany
- Autarky: Self-sufficiency to ensure national independence.
- Aggressive foreign policy: Expansion to gain Lebensraum (living space).
The Second World War
Causes
- Political: Resentment over the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler’s totalitarian ideas, and the pursuit of alliances (Rome-Berlin Axis, Pact of Steel, Nazi-Soviet Pact).
- Economic: Economic hardship caused by war reparations.
- Territorial: Japanese expansion in Asia, Italian expansion in Africa, and German expansion in Europe (Rhineland, Austria, Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia).
Cause
Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, triggered war declarations from Britain and France.
Features
- Global conflict.
- Ideological war until the Soviet Union’s entry.
- New weapons and tactics.
- Extensive espionage.
- Women in active service.
- Resistance movements in occupied territories.
The New Deal
Economic and social reforms implemented by President Roosevelt to address the Great Depression.
Sovkhoz
State-owned farms in the Soviet Union, where land, machinery, and livestock belonged to the state.
“Final Solution”
Nazi Germany’s plan for the systematic genocide of European Jews.
Yalta Conference
The wartime meeting of Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt in February 1945, often seen as the beginning of the Cold War.