A History of Spain: From Pre-Roman Times to the 19th Century
1. Pre-Roman and Roman Spain
1.1 Paleolithic and Neolithic
The origin of the human species is in Africa. The Iberian Peninsula was very important for European hominization, as demonstrated in Atapuerca, a site where several phases of evolution are found. During prehistory, social and economic relations changed. In the Paleolithic period, people had a predatory economy based on hunting and gathering and a nomadic life with egalitarian societies. In the Neolithic period, they had a productive economy based on agriculture and livestock, so they were sedentary, developed urbanism, complex societies, and agricultural technology. Rock art developed during prehistory, and two types are distinguished: Cantabrian art, developed in the Upper Paleolithic and naturalistic, and Levantine art, which emerged between the Mesolithic and Neolithic and was schematic.
1.2 Pre-Roman Peoples and Mediterranean Colonizations
The pre-Roman peoples of the Peninsula were grouped into cultural areas: the Iberians, located in the Mediterranean, were grouped into tribes and city-states, and in their art, the Lady of Elche stands out. The Celts occupied the center and north of the peninsula and were less developed, practicing subsistence agriculture and iron metallurgy, they were grouped into tribes and in forts. The Tartessos extended from Huelva to Cartagena, but the exact site is still not known with certainty, they exploited minerals and had agricultural and livestock wealth. The colonizing peoples came from the eastern Mediterranean and arrived on the peninsula attracted by its mineral wealth and commercial relations. They brought many benefits to the Peninsula, such as writing or currency, for example. There were three groups: The Phoenicians, from present-day Lebanon, were navigators and interested in trade, so they founded enclaves such as Gadir or Malaka. Also, the Greeks, who came from Phocaea and Massalia, formed colonies, among which Hemeroskopeion, Rhode, and Emporion stand out. Finally, the Carthaginians, a Phoenician colony from North Africa, carried out a more hostile colonization and founded Qard Hadaste Ibiza.
1.3 Roman Hispania
The Roman conquest began with the Second Punic War against Carthage (218 BC). The occupation began in the Levantine zone and in the Guadalquivir valley, the rest of the peninsula was taken with military campaigns, the Cato Campaign (195 BC) against the Iberian tribes, the Celtiberian-Lusitanian wars (145 BC), which ended with the siege of Numantia and the death of Viriathus, and Cantabrian-Asturian wars (29 BC) led by Augustus against the northern peninsula.
After the conquests, they carried out Romanization, the process of imposing Roman customs and culture on the population. This was early and effective in the Iberian area and later and irregular in the center and north of the peninsula. This process was executed in various ways. They used the army as a vehicle for the diffusion of Roman civilization, founded colonies, extended the urban model of life, and imposed Latin as the official language, giving rise, later, to the Romance languages, Roman law, and religion, which at the end of the Empire was Christian. Finally, it is worth highlighting the development of public works such as roads, aqueducts, etc. In addition, Hispania contributed very important figures such as the emperors Trajan and Theodosius or the philosopher Seneca.
1.4 The Visigothic Monarchy
In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Suebi, Vandals, and Alans. While another Germanic people, the Visigoths, threatened Rome in Italy. They reached an agreement in which the Romans ceded Gaul and Hispania in exchange for fighting against the invading peoples. Despite the agreement, the Roman Empire fell in 476, and the Visigoths, after being defeated in Gaul by the Franks, decided to settle in Hispania, creating the Visigothic kingdom of Toledo (509-711). They tried to impose a policy of domination and initiated unifying measures: the territorial one promoted by Leovigild (573-586), the religious one propitiated by Reccared at the Third Council of Toledo (586-601) in which they converted to Catholicism. These councils were meetings of nobles and high clergy in which legislative and political decisions were made; and the legislative one by Recceswinth, who established the Fuero Juzgo. The monarch of the kingdom was elected in the assembly of notables. In addition, these institutions stood out: Aula Regia and Officium Platinum.
2. The Rise of Modern Spain
2.1 The Catholic Monarchs: Dynastic Union and Government Institutions. The War of Granada
In 1469, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married, consolidating the dynastic union, which was opposed by Henry IV, who preferred Alfonso V of Portugal. In 1474, Isabella proclaimed herself Queen of Castile and began the War of Succession (1475-1478) against Joanna. The Treaty of Alcáçovas recognized Isabella as Queen of Castile, and in 1479, Ferdinand inherited the Crown of Aragon. The Catholic Monarchs represent the transition from the medieval to the modern state. They limited the power of the nobility, controlled cities and towns with corregidores, and created the Santa Hermandad and the Spanish Inquisition in 1478. Administratively, they created councils, chancelleries, and the figure of the viceroy appeared in Aragon. The War of Granada (1482-1492) was the final conflict of the Reconquista in Spain, led by the Catholic Monarchs to conquer the Kingdom of Granada. After a series of sieges and battles between Christian and Muslim forces, Granada fell on January 2, 1492, with the surrender of Boabdil, consolidating the unification of Spain under the rule of the Catholic Monarchs.
2.2 Exploration, Conquest, and Colonization of America
At the end of the 15th century, the kingdoms of Portugal and Castile were pioneers in overseas expansion. Christopher Columbus, after signing the Capitulations of Santa Fe in January 1492, set sail from Palos de la Frontera on August 3 with three ships: the caravels: the Pinta, the Niña, and the Nao Santa María. They arrived in Guanahani on October 12, 1492, believing they had reached the Indies, but they had discovered America. The Catholic Monarchs, with the rights of conquest of Pope Alexander VI, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, establishing a demarcation line that granted Portugal the African coast of Brazil, and Castile the Caribbean and the rest of America and the Pacific. From 1499, the Spanish crown delegated the conquest to individuals through a system of capitulations and distributions. Although the Laws of Burgos (1512) attempted to protect the natives through the encomienda, they were not very effective. Spanish rule began in the Antilles, being the base for the continental conquest in the reign of Charles I. The most outstanding explorations are: the conquest of the Aztec empire by Hernán Cortés; the circumnavigation expedition led by Magellan and Elcano (1519-1522); and the conquest of the Inca empire by Francisco Pizarro (1527-1533). Colonization involved the economic exploitation of precious metals and agriculture, exchanging crops between America and Europe. Culturally, America offered diversity, establishing an unequal society organized in castes, with the predominance of the Spanish. The Castilian language and Spanish culture prevailed.
3. The Habsburg Dynasty
3.1 The Habsburgs of the 16th Century: Domestic and Foreign Policy
The reign of Charles I of Castile and V of Germany, heir to a vast empire, was marked by his ambition to become emperor and successive conflicts. He ascended to the throne of Castile and Aragon in 1516 at the age of 16, triggering tensions by summoning Cortes to impose taxes and appoint Flemish people to Castilian positions. Internally, he faced the Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521) in Castile, which ended with the Battle of Villalar, and the Germanías (1519-1524) in Valencia and Murcia, which emerged as an anti-seigneurial movement. Externally, Charles I faced conflicts with France, the Pope, the Turks, and the German Lutherans. Philip II inherited the monarchy in 1556 and faced internal problems such as the persecution of Protestant communities, the rebellion of the Granadan Moriscos (1568-1570), and tensions with Aragon over the case of Antonio Pérez. Philip II was involved in wars against France, the rebellion of the Netherlands, the defense against the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), and confrontations with England, highlighting the failed Spanish Armada in 1588 and achieving the Iberian Union by incorporating Portugal in 1580. The Habsburg monarchy, characterized by its multinationality, attempted administrative centralization, so Castile became the nucleus, establishing its court and capital in Madrid. The administration was based on councils and viceroys to represent the king in various territories.
3.2 The Habsburgs of the 17th Century: Domestic and Foreign Policy
The 17th century was characterized by the accumulation of political problems due to the delegation of government functions to validos by the last Habsburgs. Philip III initiated this practice by appointing the Duke of Lerma as valido. Philip IV appointed the Count-Duke of Olivares, who attempted an administrative reform that clashed with the resistance of the crown of Aragon and Portugal. In the reign of Philip III, the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609 stands out, while with Philip IV, Olivares’ management faced resistance from some territories. The crisis of 1640 was notable for the rebellion of Catalonia and that of Portugal, which feared losing their fueros. In the international arena, Spain lost its hegemony in Europe and parts of its empire during the Thirty Years’ War. Philip III adopted a pacifist policy, while Philip IV entered into wars that led to the independence of the Netherlands through the Peace of Westphalia and the loss of territories against France.
4. The Bourbon Dynasty and Reforms
4.1 The New Bourbon Monarchy. The Nueva Planta Decrees. State Model and Scope of Reforms
With Philip V, the Bourbon dynasty began, and a new organization of the state began, which would impose the Castilian constitutions on all territories: the system of councils was ended, and a unification and centralization of political power and administration began. The main measures of this process were to promulgate the Nueva Planta Decrees, by which the fueros, laws, and institutions of the Crown of Aragon were suppressed, with the exception of the Basque Country and Navarre. As well as absolute power to the king, and finally, they made Castile the axis of the state, and its language was the only original one. They also carried out a series of measures to modernize the state: they created ministries to replace the councils, divided the territory into provinces, created the Royal Academies of Arts and War, limited the privileges of the Mesta, freed the internal circulation of goods, carried out the first cadastre, that of Ensenada, and reorganized the viceroyalties and intendencies in America.
4.2 The Bourbon Reforms in the American Viceroyalties
The Bourbons focused on America to regain control, increase its economy, and restore Spain’s lost power. To this end, administrative reforms were carried out: the viceroyalties went from two to four, Captaincies General appeared to defend conflict zones, and Spaniards were appointed to occupy political and administrative positions instead of Creoles. The following economic measures were taken: creation of a commercial and war navy, creation of commercial companies to trade with America, suppression of the fleet system in 1735, and approval of the Free Trade Decrees in 1765. As a consequence, America experienced a period of prosperity: population growth, increased mercantile traffic with Spain, and the opening of universities in America.
5. The 19th Century: Instability and Change
5.1 Isabella II: The Effective Reign. Political Groups and Constitutions
The effective government of Isabella II was characterized by attempts to establish a system of alternation in power between the dominant parties.
In May 1844, General Narváez became Head of Government, which meant the control of the Moderates over the government. The Moderates decided to draw up a new Constitution that would strengthen the power of the monarchy and the oligarchy. The new constitution was promulgated in 1845. In the Moderate Constitution of 1845, the principle of National Sovereignty disappeared and was replaced by that of Shared Sovereignty between the king and the courts, the queen increased her powers: she appointed ministers, promulgated laws, and designated deputies, individual rights were reduced. Suffrage is limited to the wealthiest. The queen will appoint the mayors of towns with more than 2,000 inhabitants. The Moderate Decade was characterized by the elaboration of a multitude of laws to establish a political system of a conservative nature, the Civil Guard was founded in 1844. A Concordat was also signed with the Papal See by which the State ensured the economic support of the church and its social influence by allowing it to control education. In 1846, Istúriz replaced Narváez as Head of Government and negotiated the marriage of the queen with her cousin Francisco de Asís, and the Carlist conflict was reactivated, starting the Second Carlist War (1846-1849). In 1847, a political amnesty was given, and many exiles returned to Spain, among them Espartero, who was appointed senator. Narváez staged a coup in October 1847, entering the Council of Ministers sword in hand, and imposing a three-year dictatorship. In 1851, Narváez resigned after being accused of corruption and was replaced by Bravo Murillo. The new Head of Government carried out an ultra-conservative policy, reducing the legislative capacity of the courts.
Bravo Murillo was finally replaced. The military pronouncement of Generals O’Donnell, Dulce, and Olano, known as La Vicalvarada (1854), in which they drafted the Manifesto of Manzanares demanding the convening of Cortes and the reform of the electoral law, forming a coalition government between Espartero (Progressive) and O’Donnell (Moderate). The new government tried to recover the progressive regime of 1837 and planned to draw up a new Constitution in 1856 that was never promulgated. During the Biennium, various measures were carried out: economic ones, such as: the Madoz civil confiscation (1855), the approval of the railway law, and the creation of the Bank of Spain.
O’Donnell’s government meant the return to the politics and institutions of the Moderate Decade. He led the first stage of the government known as the Long Government (1856-1863), characterized by social stability and economic growth. He tried to increase Spain’s international prestige by participating in colonial conflicts in Morocco and Cochinchina (Vietnam). The government reinstated the Moderate Constitution of 1845. It sought the support of moderate liberals to create a center party, the Liberal Union. Between 1863 and 1868, Moderate and Unionist governments followed one another, but they were unable to solve Spain’s problems, which were the political crisis and discredit of the monarchy of Isabella II, the economic crisis, and the social crisis. The political situation deteriorated, and the Progressives tried to gain power through a military pronouncement, which failed. In exile, Prim, together with other opposition forces (Progressives and Democrats), signed the Pact of Ostend (1866), with the aim of dethroning Isabella II. General Serrano also joined the pact that would trigger the military uprising of September 1868.
5.2 The Revolutionary Sexennium: The Constitution of 1869. Provisional Government, Reign of Amadeo of Savoy, and First Republic
The Democratic Sexennium is the period between 1868 and 1874, in which an attempt was made to democratize Spanish political life, first through a constitutional monarchy, that of Amadeo I, with the proclamation of the First Republic. Social unrest and instability will be the constants of this stage. During the sexennium, successive governments had to face three serious problems: the Cuban insurrection that led to the Ten Years’ War (1868-78), the Third Carlist War, and the Cantonalist Insurrection.
The discredit of the reign of Isabella II reached its peak in 1866. The queen was under serious accusations of corruption and marginalization of opposition parties. Deep economic crisis and the scandals that surrounded the court. In August 1866, the opposition parties: Progressive Liberals, led by General Prim, and the Democrats, led by Ruiz Zorrilla and Sagasta, met clandestinely in the Belgian city of Ostend to sign the Pact of Ostend, whose main objective was to overthrow Isabella II and end her regime. The Liberal Union did not join the pact. General Serrano joined the pact. On September 17, 1868, a military uprising began, led by Admiral Topete, joined by Generals Serrano and Juan Prim, and which spread throughout the country: the September Revolution, also known as La Gloriosa. The forces loyal to Isabella II were defeated at the Battle of Alcolea, and the queen went into exile in France. The revolution had a political character. The forces involved in the coup, especially the Liberal Union led by the Progressive Party, were moderating revolutionary enthusiasm. The revolutionary military created a provisional government headed by General Serrano and called elections to constituent Cortes for the first time by universal male suffrage. The elections, held in 1869, gave victory to the forces that defended the creation of a constitutional monarchy and were in charge of drawing up a new Constitution.
The democratic Constitution of 1869 was the most progressive text of those promulgated in Spain, whose characteristics were: it established the principle of National Sovereignty, the Constitutional Monarchy as a form of government. Limiting the powers of the king, great prominence is given to the Bicameral Courts (Congress and Senate) elected by suffrage, an advanced declaration of individual rights, and universal male suffrage for those over 25 years of age.
The state was defined as a monarchy, and while a new king was being found for Spain, General Serrano assumed the role of regent, and Prim became president of the government with the mission of finding a king. They searched in different European courts with the premise that no Bourbon should occupy the throne. The chosen one was Amadeo of Savoy, second son of the new king of Italy, Vittorio Emmanuel. The reign was brief and characterized by political problems. On the same day of the king’s arrival in Spain, his main mentor, General Prim, was assassinated in an unsolved attack. In the Liberal Union, leaders such as Cánovas and Alonso Martínez denied their support to Amadeo and created an Alfonsino party, also the progressive forces split into two: the Constitutional Party led by Mateo Sagasta and the Radical Party of Ruiz Zorrilla. In two years, there were constant changes of government and three elections. Amadeo failed to win the affection of the Spanish people, and the regime deteriorated. The opponents were increasingly numerous: The 3rd Carlist War (1872-1876) king to Carlos VII, grandson of Carlos María Isidro, the republicans who wanted deeper political reforms, the clergy’s discomfort over the seizure of art collections and the suppression of the faculties of Theology, the intensification of an insurrection in Cuba known as the Ten Years’ War (1868-1878), the continuous social unrest, and the contempt of high society towards the king. Amadeo, unauthorized, decided to renounce the throne and return to Italy. Faced with the power vacuum, the deputies decided to proclaim the Republic on February 11, 1873.
The republic was established for the first time in Spain, however, the republican solution seemed like a hasty way out of the political crisis, and from the beginning, it had more opponents than social support. The republican leaders came from the intellectual sphere, but broad social sectors acted with hostility towards the republican regime. The solution of the Republic failed, and four presidents succeeded each other in eleven months: Figueras (February-May 1873), Pi i Margall (June-July 1873), Salmerón (July-September 1873), and Castelar (September 1873-January 1874). The reforms undertaken by the republican governments were well-intentioned and of social scope (prohibition of the work of children under 10 years of age in mines and abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico), other reforms, however, ended up failing, such as the reduction of the working day to 9 hours, the distribution of land, or the elimination of compulsory military service. The division between unitary republicans and federal republicans who wanted a Federal Republic with self-government ended the republican dream. It was accentuated with the cantonalist movement that sought a social revolution at the local level. Various cantons were proclaimed that established communal governments. Some cantons, such as Cartagena, declared war on the republican government and their independence from Spain. The cantonalist problem caused the resignation of Pi i Margall and his successor Salmerón. With Castelar, the Republic took a conservative turn. On January 2, 1874, General Pavía staged a coup by occupying the Congress of Deputies. General Serrano assumed the Head of State, dissolved the Cortes, suspended the Constitution, and declared workers’ associations illegal. A dictatorship led by Serrano began.
6. Technology and Society
6.1 Can Technology Be Addictive?
Yes, technology can be addictive. With the spread of smartphones, tablets, computers, and other devices, people are using technology more and more for communication, entertainment, information, and productivity.
There are two main reasons for this addiction. Firstly, using technology triggers an increase in dopamine in the brain. Activities such as checking social media notifications, playing video games, or browsing the internet activate the brain’s reward system, leading to feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. This can create a cycle of dependence, as people seek to repeat these feelings by constantly interacting with technology.
Secondly, the design of many digital platforms and applications is meant to be addictive. Features like endless scrolling, autoplay videos, and push notifications are designed to keep users engaged for longer periods, increasing the likelihood of addiction.
In conclusion, while technology offers numerous benefits, it’s important to recognize its potential for addiction and take steps to use it consciously and moderately.
6.2 Why Are There Still More Men Than Women in Science?
There are still more men than women in science for a few reasons. One reason is that in the past, there were fewer opportunities for women to study science. Men were often encouraged to pursue careers in science, while women were expected to focus on other things like taking care of the home. This led to fewer women becoming scientists.
Another reason is that sometimes there are stereotypes about what jobs men and women should do. Some people think that science is more for men, so they might not encourage girls to study science or they might not think girls can be good at it. This can make it harder for girls to become scientists.
Also, sometimes workplaces and universities aren’t very welcoming to women. There might not be as many female professors or scientists to look up to, and there might be discrimination or bias against women in science fields.
Overall, while there are more opportunities now for women to study science, there are still challenges that make it harder for them to succeed in these fields.
6.3 Are There Jobs More Suitable for Robots Than for Humans?
The labor market is always changing, but technological and scientific advances in recent years are affecting jobs in a major way. These advances are even raising the question of whether robots will ever be more suitable than humans for a job.
On the one hand, if we think of routine jobs, the answer is clear: we are easily replaceable. Take, for example, customer service in certain companies, where in the first contact, you are not attended by a person, but a robot.
On the other hand, we find jobs that require a lot of precision, such as in surgical operations, where robot technology has advanced a lot.
However, we find jobs that are not possible for robots, such as those based on creativity. Would it be possible for a robot to direct a theater play, indicating how the actors should act? We are still far from this situation.
To summarize, some options presented above indicate that there are jobs suitable to be performed by robots, such as all those programmable, but for now, a human is needed to decide that programming, and therefore, some jobs are not suitable for robots, humans are needed.
Today, robots are used more in different jobs. Some people wonder if there are jobs better for robots than people.
Robots are good at doing the same thing again and again, like in factories. They don’t get tired and make fewer mistakes. For example, on assembly lines, robots can make things fast and without errors.
Robots are also good for jobs that might be dangerous for people, like exploring deep underwater or working in places with radiation. They can do these jobs without risking anyone’s life. Moreover, jobs needing exactness, like surgery or making small things, are also good for robots. They can be really precise, which helps in getting things right every time.
While robots are great for some jobs because they’re fast, precise, and can work in dangerous places, there are still some things humans do better, like being creative or understanding feelings. It’s important to have both robots and humans working together.