A Journey Through History: From Ancient Civilizations to the Liberal Doctrine
Ancient Civilizations
Old age began with the appearance of writing and ended with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Urban civilization developed along the 4th millennium BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The step from village to city is known as the urban revolution. Classical civilization is considered to be Greek and Roman. In Greece, they organized into polis, or city-states. The Roman era had independent, centralized organizations. In Athens, democracy was a highlight. In Rome, the Republic and the Empire were highlights.
The Middle Ages (5th-15th Centuries)
The Byzantine Empire emerged from the division of the Roman Empire into two political units: the Western and Eastern Empires. Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century. It is a monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad.
Geographic Discoveries
Europeans needed new sources of gold and precious metals. Technical advances, like the astrolabe, and the adventurous spirit of enrichment fueled exploration. Two strong monarchies with seafaring traditions, Portugal and Castile, led these explorations. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal explored the eastern and western routes. Castile accepted Columbus’ theory that the Earth is round. Both Castile and Portugal wanted to delimit their areas, which was imposed in 1494 with the Treaty of Tordesillas.
The Old Regime (Late 15th – 18th Century)
Demographics: High birth and death rates.
Economy: The main activity was traditional agriculture. Domestic trade was limited due to poor living conditions. The discovery of American territories favored international trade.
Society: Society was divided into estates.
Politics: Absolute monarchy was imposed since the 17th century.
Enlightened Absolutism (Second Half of the 18th Century)
Several absolute monarchs promoted reforms for their subjects’ happiness, following the phrase “all for the people, but without the people.” Prominent representatives included Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, Charles III of Spain, and Joseph II of Austria.
Political Problems
During the reign of Charles III, a riot broke out in Madrid. The Italian minister Eskilache’s policies were the trigger. Charles III supported the rebellion of the British North American colonies against Great Britain. The idea of independence began to rise in Spanish America, following the example of the United States.
Economic Liberalism
With the Industrial Revolution and the development of capitalism, a system to regulate the economy was imposed, based on freedom of action in all economic sectors.
- Work is the only source of wealth.
- Personal interest favors the community.
- Economic activity is regulated by supply and demand.
- Governments should not intervene in production.
- Exchange and production must be free.
The Labor Movement
The disappearance of old forms of worker organization and protection, coupled with the lack of state intervention, left workers at the mercy of entrepreneurs. This resulted in long hours, poor safety and hygiene, child labor, low wages, layoffs, lack of vacations and social security, and the prohibition of worker associations.
Marxism and Anarchism
Marxism promoted a change in socio-economic and political relations through class struggle. Anarchism is a political theory based on small, free, self-sufficient communities.
International Workers (1860s)
Labor leaders from various European countries realized that the problems affected the proletariat of all nations.
The Era of Revolutions (Mid-17th Century Onwards)
- The British North American colonies gained independence, leading to the birth of the United States.
- France underwent the French Revolution, ending the old regime. Napoleon Bonaparte later conquered much of Europe.
- Neoclassicism developed in the cultural field.
Reasons for American Independence
- Thirteen British colonies were established.
- Conflict began when Britain imposed new taxes.
- In 1773, Britain attempted to subdue the colonists with the army, making war inevitable.
Stages of the French Revolution
- General Estates (1789): The king called the General Estates to approve new taxes.
- National Assembly: The Third Estate formed the National Assembly and began drafting a constitution.
- Constitutional Assembly: Feudalism was abolished, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was written. A constitution was adopted.
- French Republic and War: The National Convention abolished the monarchy, proclaimed the Republic, and executed the king for treason in 1793.
- The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon: After Robespierre’s fall, the Directory ruled with military support, including Napoleon, who later staged a coup.
The Liberal Doctrine (19th Century)
Liberalism defended individual freedom and rejected the estate and class system.
Principles:
- National sovereignty
- Separation of powers
- Promulgation of a constitution
- Liberties and natural rights
Nationalism (Early 19th Century)
Nationalism began as a feeling of belonging to a nation. Nationalist movements took two forms: liberationist and unificationist.
The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration (1814-1815)
After Napoleon’s defeat, absolute monarchies met to restructure the map and restore the old regime. The Congress of Vienna aimed to impose monarchical legitimacy and restore European powers. The Holy Alliance was formed between Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
The New Map:
- Belgium and Holland were united.
- Italy remained divided under Austrian influence.
- France returned to its 1792 borders.
- Germany became a confederation of 39 states.