A Literary Journey Through American Literature: From Puritanism to Romanticism

Posted on Jun 12, 2024 in Language

Song of Myself by Walt Whitman

Background

“Song of Myself,” one of the twelve original pieces in the 1855 first edition of Leaves of Grass, underwent extensive revisions, reaching its final form in 1881. This sprawling poem blends biography, sermon, and poetic meditation. Unlike the more direct pronouncements of “Starting at Paumanok,” Whitman employs symbolism and subtle commentary to explore significant themes. “Song of Myself” unfolds through vignettes rather than lists, utilizing small, meticulously crafted scenes to convey its message.

Section 1: An Optimistic Celebration

The poem begins with an optimistic tone, celebrating the self and connecting it to the reader. Whitman suggests that the poet and the reader share a common ground, the American soil. By writing about himself, he writes about the American people. As the poet of America, he finds interest in the ordinary aspects of nature. He emphasizes his connection to the land, his body springing from the American soil. His American ancestry further solidifies this bond. Whitman reveals his age to ground the poem in realism, emphasizing his focus on concrete elements and everyday life. He dedicates himself entirely to poetry, beginning and ending his career as a poet. Starting in 1855 and continuing until his death, he crafted a single book of poetry, Leaves of Grass, which saw nine editions, demonstrating his control over his literary legacy.

Whitman’s Background

Before 1855, Whitman worked as a journalist and in a printing press. Coming from a working-class family with seven siblings, he had limited formal education. He began working at a young age, becoming a journalist and editor of newspapers. His radical political views aligned with the left. After attending one of Emerson’s lectures, he was inspired to become an American poet, focusing on everyday life, a theme stemming from his journalistic background. His poetry reflected the lives of ordinary Americans.

Section 2: Love for the World

This section centers on Manhattan, where Whitman lived, and explores the material world surrounding the poet and the people. He emphasizes the fullness of the world, devoid of any void, filled with sensory experiences like perfumes. Whitman expresses his love for the world and his connection to it, highlighting the interconnectedness of the self, the soul, and the world in his poetry. This optimistic outlook celebrates life and the poet.

Whitman’s Evolving Poetry

As the Civil War approached, Whitman’s poetry took on a more pessimistic tone. He moved to Washington to work as an unpaid nurse, marking a shift in his career. This period, from 1860 to 1880, is known as”The Wound-Dresse” phase, reflecting his experiences during the war, which he documented in”Drum-Taps” From 1880 to 1892, he was perceived as the”Gray Old Poet” reflecting his later years.

Whitman’s Poetic Style

Whitman’s free verse, a modern form in America, focused on stresses and was meant to be performed. The rhythm was achieved through the repetition of syntactic structures. His poetry, characterized by long verses, centered on American society, the land, and its people. He saw himself as a representative of the people, writing concrete and material poetry about real life. His work emphasizes the interconnectedness of everything, rejecting abstraction in favor of tangible experiences.

Puritan Literature

Who Were the Puritans?

The Puritans were a group of radical Protestants who initially sought refuge in Holland, believing they could practice their faith freely. However, they eventually returned to England and were granted a piece of the New World by the King. Initially part of the Church of England, they felt it wasn’t independent enough from Catholicism and sought autonomy. The term”Puritan” initially used pejoratively, was embraced by these Protestants as a badge of pride.

Shifting Perspectives on Puritanism

Over time, interpretations of Puritanism have evolved. Initially viewed negatively due to their intolerance, scholars have recognized their role in shaping American identity. The 1960s brought a significant shift in Puritan studies with the rediscovery of Puritan women writers, challenging the male-dominated perspective.

Puritan Aesthetic Principles

The”Plain Styl”: Characterized by simplicity, this style stemmed from the Puritans’ emphasis on ministerial training. Ministers, responsible for conveying God’s message, needed to ensure clarity and understanding, leading to a straightforward writing style. Puritan writing prioritized spiritual aims over entertainment.
Characteristics of the Plain Style: Short words, direct statements, references to everyday objects, simple syntax, and vocabulary were hallmarks of this style, believed to be more effective than ornate language in revealing God’s plan.
Biblical Typology: Puritans frequently drew parallels between biblical events and their own experiences. For instance, they compared their journey to the New World with the Israelites’ exodus and saw New England as a New Zion.
Nature as Communication: Nature served as a conduit between humans and God. Natural disasters were interpreted as signs of divine displeasure, while the beauty of nature reflected God’s work.
Broad Definition of Literature: While rejecting fiction, drama, and imaginative works, Puritans utilized imagination in their writing through metaphors and symbolism.

Puritan Genres

A. Personal Narratives and History

Distrust of Non-Biblical History: Puritans relied solely on the Bible as a historical source.
Value of Personal Experience: They valued accounts of encounters with God, emphasizing the interdependence of the individual and the community.
Imagery of Sickness and Death: Their narratives often reflected a negative outlook, employing imagery of suffering and mortality.

a. The Conversion Narrative

Purpose: To provide hope and a model for conversion from sinfulness.
Example: The Autobiography of Thomas Shepard (1604-1649), which exemplified the process of public confession as a prerequisite for full church membership.

Journals, Diaries, and Autobiographies

Example 1: Michael Wigglesworth’s The Diary (1653-1657), a bestseller that resonated with its depiction of the fear of hell and the characteristic Puritan”obsessive gloom”
Example 2: Cotton Mather’s The Diary of Cotton Mather for the Years 1681—1708 (published in 1911—1912) and The Diary of Cotton Mather for the Year 1712 (published in 1971), offering insights into the life of a prominent Puritan minister and his evolving relationship with faith.

Biographies

Purpose: To present models of Puritan behavior and explain the motivations for migrating to America.
Example 1: John Norton’s Abel Being Dead Yet Speaketh (1685), an early biography drawing parallels between the life of John Cotton and biblical figures.
Example 2: Increase Mather’s The Life and Death of That Reverend Man of God, Mr. Richard Mather (1670), a more personal biography reflecting on his relationship with his father and the decline of Puritan power.
Example 3: Cotton Mather’s Parentator (1724), a biography of Increase Mather that further secularizes the genre, exploring the complex relationship between father and son.

Histories

Example 1: William Bradford’s Of Plimouth Plantation (1663-1752), documenting the history of the Plymouth colony.
Example 2: John Winthrop’s The History of New England from 1630 to 1649, a more personal account of Winthrop’s experiences and observations.

B. Poetry

Trends in Puritan Poetry

Initial Suppression: Puritan poetry was often unpublished during the writers’ lifetimes due to the prohibition of figurative language.
Rediscovery and Reevaluation: In the mid-20th century, Puritan poems were rediscovered, revealing a rich tradition that challenged previous assumptions.
Use of Figurative Language: The poems showcased the use of metaphors, classical allusions, and intertextual references, contradicting the notion of strict Puritan aesthetics.

Factors Contributing to Puritan Poetry

Relaxation of Restrictions: Around 1650, writers were granted more freedom to use sensual imagery and complex language, as advocated by influential minister Richard Baxter in The Saint’s Everlasting Rest (1650).
Expansion of Biblical Typology: Writers were allowed to draw upon sources beyond the Bible, enriching their poetic language and themes.

Types of Puritan Poetry

Secular Poetry about New England: Poems focusing on the natural landscape, such as William Wood’s New England’s Prospect (1634) and John Josselyn’s New England’s Rarities Discovered (1672).
Poems about Love and Desire: Exploring personal themes, as seen in John Saffin’s”Sayle Gentle Pinnace”
The Elegy: Poems commemorating the dead, often narrating their life events and emphasizing the connection between the individual and the community.

Major Puritan Poets

Anne Bradstreet: A highly educated woman, Bradstreet’s poetry explored themes of faith, personal experience, and the role of women. Her works include The Tenth Muse, Lately Sprung Up in America (1650) and Several Poems (1678).
Edward Taylor: Considered one of the most gifted English poets in America before the 19th century, Taylor’s poetry is characterized by its use of metaphors, mysticism, and exploration of faith. His poems often served as aids for spiritual preparation and conversion.

C. The Jeremiad

Purpose: To address the perceived decline of Puritan piety and call for a return to the original zeal and conduct.
Biblical Inspiration: Drew upon the writings of Jeremiah and Isaiah.
Structure: Typically involved recalling the past, lamenting the present, and warning of future consequences.
Themes: Included captivity narratives, letters, covenant renewals, histories, biographies, and reflections on natural disasters and political turmoil.

Types of Jeremiads

Election Sermons: Delivered at the opening of the annual General Court, these sermons aimed to reinforce Puritan values and warn against straying from the faith. An example is Samuel Danforth’s A Brief Recognition of New England’s Errand into the Wilderness (1670).
Captivity Narratives: Accounts of individuals captured by Native Americans, often highlighting the protagonist’s faith and resilience. A notable example is Mary White Rowlandson’s The Sovereignty and Goodness of God (1682).

Travel and Nature Writings

Evolution of the Genre

Early travel narratives focused on exploration, while later works reflected the changing landscape and national identity of America. These writings provide insights into the country’s historical development, cultural interactions, and the evolving relationship between humans and the natural environment.

Significance

Historical and Literary Value: Offer glimpses into the past and contribute to the development of American literature.
Ecological Perspectives: Provide insights into human interactions with nature, relevant to ecocriticism.
Women’s Voices: Include accounts from women travelers, offering unique perspectives on the experience.
Scientific Observations: Often contain detailed descriptions of the landscape, flora, and fauna, valuable for scientific study.

Examples of Travel and Nature Writings

Robert Beverley’s The History and Present State of Virginia, In Four Parts (1705): Continues the tradition of John Smith’s writings, introducing the archetype of the”American man of natur” and advocating for the transformation of wilderness into cultivated land.
William Byrd II’s History of the Dividing Line Betwixt Virginia and North Carolina: A journal chronicling Byrd’s work as a boundary surveyor, offering critical observations of various groups and idealistic descriptions of the land.
Timothy Dwight’s Travels in New England and New York (1821): A departure from earlier narratives, focusing on the present state of the landscape without romanticizing the past.
William Bartram’s Travels (1791): A celebration of the natural world, influencing writers like James Fenimore Cooper and Henry David Thoreau.
J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur’s Letters from an American Farmer: A collection of letters, some fictionalized, exploring the life of a farmer and offering insights into American society.

Autobiography

Evolution from Personal Narratives

Autobiographies shifted from a focus on religious experiences to personal relationships and individual development.

Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography (1771-1790)

Innovation: Considered the creator of the modern autobiography, emphasizing personal growth over religious conversion.
The American Dream: Franklin’s rise from humble beginnings to success embodies the American Dream.
Writing as Self-Improvement: Franklin’s life and writing are intertwined, reflecting the importance of writing in his self-transformation.
Anti-Conversion Narrative: Instead of divine intervention, Franklin finds guidance in reason, nature, and personal experience.

The Seduction Novel

Popularity and Appeal

Seduction novels were bestsellers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, attracting a growing female readership. They offered entertainment and moral lessons, often emphasizing the importance of virtue and the rewards of finding a suitable husband.

Characteristics

Focus on Women: Centered on the experiences of young women facing societal pressures and romantic entanglements.
Moral Teachings: Often included moral messages, promoting virtue and warning against the dangers of seduction.
Sentimental Love Religion: Replaced traditional religious themes with a focus on romantic love and marriage as the ultimate goal.
Epistolary Form: Frequently employed the epistolary form, using letters to create a sense of realism and immediacy.

Examples of Seduction Novels

William Hill Brown’s The Power of Sympathy (1789): Considered the first American novel, it explores the tragic consequences of seduction and incest.
Susannah H. Rowson’s Charlotte Temple (1794): A bestseller that tells the story of a young woman seduced and abandoned by a soldier.
Hannah Webster Foster’s The Coquette (1797): Explores the theme of unconventional marriage through the story of a woman who resists societal expectations.

Charles Brockden Brown and the American Gothic Novel

Exploring the Darker Side of America

American Gothic novels delved into the nation’s anxieties and hidden truths, addressing issues like slavery, Native American relations, and the darker aspects of human nature.

Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810)

Pioneer of American Gothic: Considered the first professional American author, Brown adapted the English Gothic tradition to an American setting.
Psychological Depth: His novels explored the complexities of human psychology and the power of the subconscious.
American Themes: Incorporated American settings, characters, and social issues into his Gothic narratives.
Ambiguity and Unreliable Narrators: Brown’s novels often featured unreliable narrators and ambiguous events, leaving room for interpretation.

Example of Brown’s Work

Wieland; or, The Transformation (1798): A complex novel exploring themes of religious fanaticism, manipulation, and the power of suggestion.

Washington Irving

The First American Literary Celebrity

Washington Irving achieved financial success as a writer, publishing in magazines and periodicals and gaining recognition for his satirical wit and engaging storytelling.

Early Works

The Letters of Jonathan Oldstyle, Gent. (1802-1803): Satirical essays published in the Morning Chronicle, targeting New York society.
The Whim-Whams and Opinions of Launcelot Langstaff, Esq., and Others (1807-1808): A collection of humorous essays.
The History of New York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dinasty (1809): A satirical history of New York, published under the pseudonym Diedrich Knickerbocker.

The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (1820)

Short Story Collection: A collection of essays and sketches, including the iconic stories”Rip Van Winkl” and”The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”
Influence on American Literature: Established Irving as a master of the short story form and contributed to the development of American Romanticism.

James Fenimore Cooper and the Historical Romance of Adventures

The Creator of the American West

James Fenimore Cooper is best known for his Leatherstocking Tales, a series of novels that romanticized the American frontier and created enduring archetypes of the American hero and the wilderness experience.

Key Works

Precaution (1820): A novel of manners influenced by Jane Austen and the Brontë sisters.
The Spy: A Tale of the Neutral Ground (1821): Introduced Cooper’s concept of the”neutral ground” where opposing ideologies could coexist.
The Leatherstocking Tales: A series of five novels—The Pioneers (1823), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Prairie (1827), The Pathfinder (1840), and The Deerslayer (1841)—that follow the life of Natty Bumppo, a skilled frontiersman.

Romanticism and Transcendentalism

Romanticism: A Reaction Against Tradition

Romanticism emerged as a reaction against Enlightenment rationalism, emphasizing emotion, intuition, and the power of the individual.

Key Principles of Romanticism

Emphasis on Emotion and Intuition: Romantics valued feeling and instinct over reason as paths to truth.
Celebration of the Individual: They emphasized the uniqueness and inherent worth of each person.
Reverence for Nature: Nature was seen as a source of inspiration, beauty, and spiritual insight.
Idealism and Optimism: Romanticism often presented an idealized view of the world and human potential.

Transcendentalism: American Romanticism

Transcendentalism was a distinctly American form of Romanticism, influenced by the nation’s unique history and ideals.

Key Characteristics of Transcendentalism

Focus on the Future: Unlike European Romanticism, which often looked to the past, Transcendentalism embraced the possibilities of the American future.
The Frontier Spirit: The idea of the frontier—a vast, untamed wilderness—played a central role in Transcendentalist thought, representing opportunity, self-reliance, and a connection to nature.
America as a New Eden: Transcendentalists saw America as a land of new beginnings, a place where humanity could create a more perfect society.
Spiritual Connection to Nature: They believed that nature was a manifestation of the divine and that spending time in nature could lead to spiritual enlightenment.

Slave Narratives

Giving Voice to the Enslaved

Slave narratives played a crucial role in the abolitionist movement, providing firsthand accounts of the horrors of slavery and challenging the humanity of the institution.

Characteristics of Slave Narratives

Autobiographical Accounts: Narratives were typically written by enslaved individuals themselves or dictated to white amanuenses.
Focus on Freedom: The central theme was the desire for freedom and the struggle to achieve it.
Authenticity and Emotional Appeal: Narratives aimed to expose the brutality of slavery and evoke empathy from readers.
Religious Themes: Many narratives explored the hypocrisy of Christian slaveholders and the importance of faith for enslaved people.

Notable Slave Narratives

Olaudah Equiano’s The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself (1789): Equiano’s narrative details his capture in Africa, the horrors of the Middle Passage, and his eventual journey to freedom. He challenges the notion of African inferiority and emphasizes the importance of education and self-improvement.
Frederick Douglass’s Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845): Douglass’s powerful narrative recounts his experiences as an enslaved person, his escape to freedom, and his work as an abolitionist. He exposes the psychological trauma of slavery and argues for the equality of all people.

Short Tales

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Exploration of Sin and Guilt: Hawthorne’s stories often delved into the darker aspects of human nature, exploring themes of sin, guilt, and the consequences of hidden transgressions.
Historical Settings: He frequently set his stories in Puritan New England, using the past to comment on contemporary society.
Allegory and Symbolism: Hawthorne’s writing is rich in allegory and symbolism, inviting readers to interpret multiple layers of meaning.
Psychological Realism: He excelled at portraying the inner lives of his characters, exploring their motivations, anxieties, and moral dilemmas.

Edgar Allan Poe

Master of the Macabre: Poe is renowned for his tales of horror, mystery, and the grotesque, often exploring themes of death, madness, and the darker side of the human psyche.
Innovations in Short Story Structure: He is credited with defining the modern short story, emphasizing brevity, intensity, and unity of effect.
Genres and Themes: Poe’s stories spanned various genres, including Gothic fiction, mystery, science fiction, and humor, but they often shared common themes of loss, guilt, and the fragility of the human mind.
The Ratiocinative Method: He introduced the concept of the”ratiocinativ” detective, a character who uses logic and deduction to solve crimes, paving the way for the modern detective story.

Herman Melville

Exploration of Ambition and Obsession: Melville’s most famous work, Moby-Dick, is a complex allegory that explores themes of ambition, obsession, revenge, and the limits of human knowledge.
Seafaring Adventures and Philosophical Depth: His early novels often drew upon his experiences at sea, but they also grappled with philosophical questions about good and evil, fate and free will, and the nature of existence.
Tragic Heroes: Melville’s characters often faced tragic fates, driven by their own flaws or the indifference of the universe.
Symbolism and Allegory: Like Hawthorne, Melville’s writing is rich in symbolism and allegory, inviting readers to interpret multiple layers of meaning.

Romantic Fiction

. Literary Genres. Dark Romanticism: Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville 1.- Beginnings of prose Writings. 1850. Types of narratives: ‘local narratives’, ‘personal narratives’, ‘national narratives’, literary narratives. Novel vs. Romance. Difference between the novel and the romance: Novel → Deal with the real world. It is basically about a group of people, the characters are very important, more than the plot. The characters will be round characters. Clear relation with nature. The events are important but they must be real. Is the genre of the middle class. Romance → It is not very realistic. Moby Dick is a romance and it is not realistic. The action is more important than the characters. Are two dimensional characters, they are not round characters. Everything in the romance is idealized. And there is an obsessive involvement. Characters are abstract and ideal. The character is only a function of the plot. There is a lot of action.The romance is what we have after the civil war.Nathaniel Hawthore (romance): He published in 1850 the first one which was “The Scarlet Letter” (It is psychological romance). It was a manuscrit. He wanted to write a long tale. This man found the manuscrit so he said that he was the one who found the manuscrit and he was not important. – myth of isolation: He feels isolated in society. He saw that the society he lived in was very very materialistic. – He uses a narrative strategy in which the self-dissociation: with the social speaker vs antisocial person appears. The person who speaks is not one person in the narrative. “The House of the Seven Gables” & “The Blithedale romance” His poetics → He writes about neutral territory. Is the place where literature takes place and for him that was the “The Custom House”. Between reality and fantasy the literature exists. So that neutral territory gave the possibility to write between these two concepts. The Custom House was old and isolated so the works do not take place in the materialistic society. The stories were about the past but took place in the present. “The Scarlet Letter”: The main character is a woman who is adultera. Roger Chillingworth is Pearl’s father but as es hija de un adulterio no dice nada porque todo el mundo le considera un muy buen hombre. Is about hypocrisy.