A Summary of Scientific Theories and Concepts
Scientific Theories and Concepts: A Summary
What Does ‘Reduced to the Facts’ Mean?
Reduced to the facts means that some facts are inaccessible to experience because we cannot recreate certain events, such as the Big Bang. In such cases, we only have facts from which to draw hypotheses that cannot be empirically verified.
What is Epistemological Anarchism?
Epistemological anarchism suggests that scientific research should consider all factors, including myths and metaphysics, not just methodological rules.
Mario Bunge’s Factual Assumptions
According to Mario Bunge, a factual assumption is a theory guiding an investigation, referring to facts not proven or verifiable by experience.
Categorical Scientific Hypotheses
Most scientific hypotheses are formulated categorically because they cannot be directly experienced. Therefore, they focus on experienced facts to support the hypothesis.
Logical Form of Hypotheses
Hypotheses have a conditional form because hypothetical propositions alone do not provide sufficient information. Relating a fact to a fact sometimes involves hypothetical propositions that cannot be fully experienced. Therefore, a conditional form is used to create a complete hypothesis.
Assumptions of a Hypothesis
The assumptions of a hypothesis are the underlying parts not explicitly discussed because they are understood. There are two types:
- Generic: Formulas not peculiar to the research area (e.g., laws of logic in biological research).
- Specific: Formulas within the field, forming the immediate background (e.g., the existence of light in optics).
Features of Ancient Science
Ancient science viewed the universe as closed and finite, geocentric (Earth-centered), with all movement caused by another body, originating from a still, purposeful first mover (teleology). Aristotle divided the universe into two levels:
- Sublunar: Imperfect, composed of earth, water, air, and fire, ordered by weight.
- Celestial: Perfect, containing stars and a fifth element (ether).
Ptolemy later added a double-planet orbit model, which Christianity later adapted.
What is Teleology?
Teleology implies a geocentric universe where everything revolves around the Earth.
What is Mechanism?
Mechanism, a theory that followed geocentric and teleological theories, views the universe as operating like a clock. Knowing the position and velocity of all particles would allow prediction of the future, a concept challenged by quantum theory, which states that particles only have a probabilistic behavior. The mechanistic theory faced challenges in the 19th century with the discovery of electromagnetism and the four fundamental forces.
Features of the New Science (Galileo and Newton)
The new science is heliocentric (sun-centered), uses mathematics to explain the universe, and introduces a new method of knowledge. It also involves a dominating attitude towards nature, leading to technological advancements. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that bodies attract each other based on mass and distance.
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity (Briefly)
Relativity states that there is no absolute motion or fixed reference point, proposing a space-time continuum. Mass and energy are interchangeable (E = mc²). It explains accelerated motion and gravity as spacetime curvature.
Quantum Theory (Briefly)
Quantum theory explains matter’s structure at the atomic and subatomic levels. Max Planck’s work showed that matter absorbs and emits energy in discrete units, implying a dual nature of matter as both particles and waves, with only probabilistic behavior.
Why Science Cannot Be Deterministic
Science cannot be deterministic because it is impossible to simultaneously measure both the position and velocity of a particle, although each can be measured separately.
The Four Fundamental Forces of the Universe
The four fundamental forces are: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. The strong nuclear force binds the atomic nucleus, while the weak force acts within protons and neutrons. Both produce energy but have limited range. Gravity is powerful but weaker. Electromagnetism governs atomic interactions through proton and electron attraction and repulsion.