African Decolonization: Independence and Its Challenges
The decolonization of Africa occurred primarily after World War II. Independence brought many problems due to the artificiality of the borders drawn during the Berlin Conference (1885) and the imperialist ambitions of the former European powers. The processes of independence began after the war.
Independence in the Maghreb (North Africa)
- Libya gained independence from Italy in 1951. In 1969, Muammar al-Gaddafi led a coup and established a socialist regime. For decades, Libya became a major adversary of the West in North Africa.
- Egypt’s early approaches to Arabism fostered the awareness that Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco belong to the Maghreb, enjoying great prestige in the Arab world.
- Morocco became independent in 1956 from France and Spain after a series of bombings and acts of sabotage. It was established as a constitutional monarchy headed by Mohammed V. In 1969, Spain ceded Ifni to Morocco, and in 1975, Hassan II (son of Mohammed V) initiated the Green March to occupy Western Sahara, a conflict that persists today. That same year, Tunisia also achieved independence.
- Algeria’s path to independence was far from peaceful, marked by a war that lasted from 1954 to 1962. The conflict began when French colonists opposed France’s recognition of Algerian independence, leading to a war between France and the National Liberation Front. Although Algeria gained independence in 1962 with a socialist model, some Islamic sectors opposed it.
Independence in Sub-Saharan Africa
- In Anglophone Africa, the United Kingdom was the colonial power. The Gold Coast (Ghana) became independent in 1957, led by Kwame Nkrumah. This independence triggered a process of decolonization in the remaining territories between 1960 and 1965.
- In Francophone Africa, France was the colonial power. Senegal became independent in 1960, being the first country to do so. Léopold Sédar Senghor played a significant role, advocating for a community of French-speaking former colonies.
- In Portuguese Africa, Portugal was the colonial power. Independence in these colonies was delayed due to a number of guerrilla movements. It wasn’t until 1975 that Angola and Mozambique gained independence, following the Carnation Revolution that ended the dictatorship of António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal.
- The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960, thanks to Patrice Lumumba, but it quickly descended into civil war following the secession of Katanga. After a long confrontation, Mobutu Sese Seko established a dictatorship in 1965, and in 1971, the country was renamed Zaire.
- In 1968, Spain granted independence to Equatorial Guinea. In 1956, Spain ceded the northern part of Morocco that it controlled.
- Southern Rhodesia declared independence in 1965. The white settlers established a system of Apartheid, canceling the rights of Black people and repressing them until 1980, when Robert Mugabe led a coup and liberalized the country, renaming it Zimbabwe.
The independence of African countries led to many problems that hindered their development, giving rise to the term “Third World.”