Afro-Asian Independence: Challenges and Impact on Global Politics

Posted on Dec 18, 2024 in History

Challenges and Problems of Afro-Asian Independence

“Trying to abandon the white political power by political and negotiated means or through armed struggle to form a nation-state like that of the metropolis, with defined borders and certain social and economic cohesion.”

Imitating the political institutions and social and economic practices, the former settlers tried to achieve a similar development to that of Western countries. Those who drove political movements for independence processes were modern; their ideologies, programs, methods, and political organizations were of decolonization. The momentum: the First World War weakened Europeans, leading to an anti-imperialist revolution. The Bolsheviks divulged a message that was an example for most of the nationalist leaders of Africa and Asia. The crisis affected all 29 food-exporting countries, and falling prices of raw materials ruined social elites. The Second World War affected the empires more. After 1945, the climate of liberation and revolution altered the colonies in Asia.

Fundamental Characteristics of the Middle East: The First Area to Achieve Colonial Independence

  • Cultural Unity: In Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, most talked Arabic. Only in northern and eastern boundaries were non-Arab peoples: Turks and Persians. All had the same Islamic religion.
  • Political Division: The Arabs, although the majority, had no state of their own. The area was divided between the British Empire, the Turkish Empire, and Persia.
  • Strategic Situation: The Middle East had an important geostrategic and economic position. It bordered the USSR to the north and was the shortest sea route eastward through the Suez Canal. There are very large oil deposits.

British and French mandates were distributed as the League of Nations, the former independent Turkish territories. Saudi Arabia and Egypt became independent.

The Middle East in 1939

In the Turkish and Persian empires, revolutions were attempted to create modern national states of the Western type. In Turkey, a secular and nationalist republic was implanted, led by Mustafa Kemal after a civil war. In Palestine, the British allowed massive Jewish immigration from Europe, which provoked clashes between Muslims and Jews. In Persia, Reza Pahlavi proclaimed himself Shah after a coup, attempting to modernize the nation. The state was renamed Iran.

The Evolution of the Near East

Iran and Turkey had pro-Western secular regimes:

  • The Turkish Republic was linked to the defense system of NATO and aimed at the westernization and modernization of the country.
  • The Shahs of Iran pursued a policy similar to Turkey’s, but it was less successful and ended after the revolution of 1979.

The Arab world was divided into states. The Arab nations were very traditional, almost feudal monarchies. In most of these new countries, oligarchies were controlled by Western powers. Other Arab countries experienced popular revolutions or coups that instituted national republics (like Egypt). These new regimes were hostile to the former colonial powers and to the U.S. due to their desire for independence and autonomy. Their projects were supported by the nationalization of basic resources for the economy. Most Arab countries formed the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, which regulated crude oil prices. They sought USSR support in getting financial aid and did not spare the West their position before the birth of the state of Israel and the wars caused by it.

The Iranian Revolution

The Shah Pahlavi was exiled from Iran. This revolution had a social origin, and its main leaders were the ayatollahs, enemies of the progress of the West. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini established an Islamic republic ruled by ayatollahs; it was a theocracy supported by the people.

Arab-Israeli Conflict

After the Second World War, many Jews did not want to return to their countries of origin and came secretly to Palestine. The British did not welcome them, and the more radical Jewish terrorists committed attacks, asking for the state promised by the Balfour Declaration. The UN divided the region into a Jewish area and a Muslim area. Great Britain left the region. This was accepted by the Jews but not by the Arabs, which led to war. David Ben-Gurion, head of the Jewish provisional government, proclaimed the state of Israel, which was recognized by the U.S., the USSR, and four other countries.

Major Arab-Israeli Conflicts

  • War of 1948-1949: Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Syria joined the Palestinian Arabs against Israel, which survived and seized the Palestinian territory (except part of Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza).
  • The Suez Crisis of 1956: Israel attacked Egypt, and France and Great Britain aided because Nasser had nationalized the Suez Canal.
  • Six-Day War (1967): Israel defeated its Arab neighbors and seized the Sinai Peninsula, West Bank, Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights.
  • Yom Kippur War (1973): Egypt and Syria unsuccessfully attacked Israel on the day of Yom Kippur. OPEC decided to cut its oil exports to Western countries supporting Israel. Later, Egypt signed the Camp David Accords, recognizing the state of Israel in exchange for the return of the Sinai.

This led to the consolidation of Israel as a state, which was supported economically and militarily by the U.S., making it possible to establish a Western-style republic. However, its borders were not permanent, nor was the state of Israel recognized by its neighbors. Palestinian Arabs expelled from Israel lived in refugee camps in many nearby countries. Many Palestinians remained under the rule of Israel. Given the impotence of the Arab states, the Palestine Liberation Organization was created, led by Yasser Arafat, who wanted to create a state for Palestinian Arabs. The activity of the Palestinians and Israel’s retaliation kept the conflict alive, which became Arab-Israeli.

Key Events

  • Invasion of Lebanon: Israel invaded Lebanon to end their refugee camps and war and terrorist activities.
  • First Intifada: Erupted in the West Bank and Gaza territories occupied by Israel. It was a popular rebellion of Palestinian youths accompanied by general civil disobedience. It received the support of the PLO.

Common Characteristics in the Decolonization of Asia

  • Independence came after the Second World War.
  • European presence was higher in the Near East.
  • The borders of the USSR wrapped both Central and Eastern Asia.
  • Japanese and Chinese empires were European colonies.

Meiji Japan

It was a non-white people that developed as a Western power. In the Pacific colonies invaded by the Japanese, it was impossible to reimpose European authority.

China

It became a republic and attempted to carry out a process of modernization, leading to a civil war that benefited the West. The influence of communist parties was higher; the presence of this ideology provoked the U.S. to become interested in the area and intervene militarily.

The Indian Subcontinent and Central Asia

The Indian population was large and heterogeneous. Besides many nationalist parties in the territory, the figure of Gandhi emerged, who managed to move masses with a resistance movement. After the Second World War, the British government decided to accelerate the process of independence. The opposition between Hindus and Muslims led to the creation of Pakistan, which the British granted independence, separating the territory, while India became independent. After that, Pakistan entered into a civil war and was divided into two separate regions. The hostility between India and Pakistan continued. India became a secular and parliamentary state. Nehru was the leading supporter of showing neutrality in the Cold War. Although in these territories there have been numerous confrontations over religious, nationalist, and social issues.

East Asia

East Asia was invaded and occupied by the Japanese. Throughout the area came communist militias willing to wage wars of liberation. The Western powers supported the nationalist government. China was ready to combat weapons to support communist guerrillas, and the U.S. was the ally of the anti-communist schemes. The U.S. granted independence to the Philippines and crushed the communist guerrillas in this area. The Dutch did not accept that Sukarno proclaimed the independence of Indonesia. The disorders were constant in the region. In the end, the Netherlands granted independence. Sukarno allied with the Communists, and after a coup, Suharto imposed a dictatorship until 1998. In Malaysia, the British refused to grant independence, but after placating communist insurgencies, they granted it. Singapore seceded from the rest of the country, becoming a city-state where the population was overwhelmingly Chinese. The French refused to recognize independence to Indochina but failed when attempting to reduce the communist guerrillas, who were strong in North Vietnam. China gave them aid. In Cambodia, a civil war was experienced in which China, the USSR, and the U.S. used different guerrillas at their convenience. Today, Cambodia is returning to political normalization.

Decolonization in Africa

Singularly important – there were hardly independent states. Ancient empires were not important. No models of political development were proposed in the area. Under the colonial administration, tribal power structures could not compete with the whites. An exception was in Mediterranean Africa, where Arab culture and the presence of Islam united the natives against the West. The nationalist movements in sub-Saharan Africa were too weak before 1945. They did not mobilize the masses, and the presence of the Communist parties was almost testimonial. The process of independence was more delayed than in other areas: it did not start until 1956. In Africa, there were important kernels of white settlers in certain areas, increasing resistance to decolonization.

Arab Africa: The Algerian War

The Arab countries were the first to get independence.

The Evolution of North Africa

  • Libya: Presided over by Gaddafi’s dictatorship. Exploitation of oil. Revolutionary rhetoric and anti-American positions.
  • The French: In 1956, the French granted independence to Tunisia and Morocco. Tunisia became a republic, and Morocco a traditional monarchy. The political line has always been close to the West.
  • Collaboration of Franco’s Spain.
  • Frente Polisario: A political group that is still fighting for an independent Sahara from Morocco.
  • Egypt: 1952 revolution that ended the traditional monarchy.

The Case of Algeria

A very large number of Europeans settled there for several generations. They tried to prevent independence by all means. The French granted it. The Algerian nationalist movement coalesced in the National Liberation Front, very militant since 1954, calling for armed insurgency and terrorism. Between 1954 and 1962, there was a guerrilla war. The Secret Army Organization (OAS), settlers, military, and uncompromising French police were experts in the torture of prisoners and the “dirty war.” The Evian Accords imposed a ceasefire in 1962. After independence, Algeria became a Socialist Republic, constantly undermined by civil conflicts and coup threats.

Sub-Saharan Africa

Decolonization was generally peaceful. Independence was negotiated between the metropolis and the weak nationalist movements. British, French, and Belgian Africa were decolonized between 1960 and 1962. The exception was Portuguese Africa, which did not achieve independence until 1974-75. In Kenya, the Mau Mau guerrillas terrorized the British settlers to expel them. Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa became independent states in which the white minority imposed its racist policy of apartheid. Rhodesia remained in this situation until 1980, after which it was called Zimbabwe.

The Case of South Africa

After 1945, settlers strengthened the apartheid regime. A powerful black nationalist party, the African National Congress (ANC), was created. Given the black riots, governments resorted to murder, persecution, and imprisonment. In the 1994 elections, blacks were finally able to vote. Nelson Mandela was elected president of the new South Africa.

Africa After Independence

There have been constant military coups. The new states are often torn by endemic intertribal conflicts and fed by the constant traffic of arms. The conflict between Tutsi and Hutu ethnic groups has torn Central Africa since 1994.

The Non-Aligned Movement

With the birth of the new Afro-Asian states, many of the new leaders of the former colonies were neutral. They decided not to align and create a third bloc. In 1955, the Conference met in Bandung (Java) with 29 Afro-Asian countries. It was an initiative of the “five of Colombo”: India, Pakistan, Burma, Indonesia, and Ceylon. Its objectives were to promote ties between the decolonized countries, combat colonialism and racism, and contribute to peace and internal strife. It created the Non-Aligned Movement, which held conferences periodically. It was a pressure group of the so-called Third World. Protagonists included Nehru, Sukarno, Tito, and Nasser.

The Third World After the Cold War

Solidarity between Third World countries was often very effective in reduced areas, such as Islamic countries, the Arab Organization, or African Unity (OAU). The common ideal of sub-Saharan African countries was Pan-Africanism.