Age of Exploration and Reformation: Impacts and Transformations
Geographical Explorations (15th & 16th Centuries)
Causes:
- Political: Territory expansion
- Economic: Gold & spice acquisition
- Scientific & Technological: Compass, astrolabe, caravel advancements
- Religious: Spread Christianity
Treaty of Tordesillas:
Castile and Portugal agreed to divide newly discovered lands outside Europe, following Papal Bulls. The demarcation line shifted west.
Requerimiento:
Formal document explaining to indigenous populations their obligation to accept Spanish sovereignty, based on Papal donation.
Organization of the Americas:
Castilian institutions were established.
Consequences of the Discovery of America:
- Political: Formation of Spanish colonial empires
- Economic: Price revolution, triangular trade
- Demographic & Social: Emigration and miscegenation
- Cultural: New cartographic and anthropological knowledge
Consequences for Indigenous Peoples:
- Political: Imposition of Castilian rule and dependence systems, including slavery
- Economic: Decline due to exploitation
- Demographic: Population decrease, new diseases, miscegenation
- Cultural: Spread of Christianity, disappearance of other beliefs
Social Classes in the 19th Century
Nobility:
Declined in some countries, but retained territorial wealth (estates) in Spain, often augmented by ecclesiastical confiscations. Maintained political power through palace life and Senate positions.
Bourgeoisie:
Protagonist of revolutions and its main beneficiary. Several types:
- High Bourgeoisie: Scarce in Spain, modernized the European economy.
- Middle Bourgeoisie: Formed by liberals.
- Lower Bourgeoisie:
Peasants:
Lost quality of life due to confiscations.
The Reformation
Beginning:
Initiated by Martin Luther, a German monk, due to his concept of the Church and belief that faith alone justifies human actions. He criticized the Church’s corruption and advocated for three sacraments: penance, baptism, and communion. His confrontation with the Roman Church escalated when he challenged indulgences. He published 95 theses against papal authority, monastic vows, celibacy, the cult of saints, and the Eucharist. The Pope excommunicated him, leading to the Protestant Reformation.
Fundamental Principles of Lutheran Reform:
- Salvation through faith alone (predestination)
- Rejection of indulgences
- Bible as the sole authority
- Free interpretation of the Bible
- Abolition of celibacy
- Rejection of good works for salvation
- Abolition of the cult of the Virgin and saints
- Acceptance of baptism and the Eucharist as the only sacraments
The Counter-Reformation
Overview:
Religious movement revitalizing the Catholic Church to address the religious crisis and the rise of Protestantism in Western Europe.
Council of Trent:
Convened by Pope Paul III, lasted 18 years. Addressed Protestant claims of predestination, free interpretation of the Bible, and the corruption of human nature (rendering sacraments worthless).
Findings of the Council:
- Defining Dogmas of Faith:
- Papal infallibility
- Importance of the seven sacraments
- Cult of the Virgin and saints
- True Translation of the Bible: St. Jerome’s Vulgate
- Salvation: Requires faith and good works
- Discipline and Ecclesiastical Customs:
- Bishops obliged to reside in their dioceses
- Seminaries created to train priests
- Prohibition of accumulating ecclesiastical offices
Main Representative of the Counter-Reformation:
Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus. Main contributions:
- Need for clergy training
- Importance of educating the common people through dedicated institutions
Council:
Conference of bishops and other Catholic Church ecclesiastics to deliberate and decide on matters of faith, discipline, and customs.
Renaissance
Overview:
Artistic style developed mainly in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries.
Architects:
- 15th Century: Brunelleschi, Alberti
- 16th Century: Bramante, Michelangelo, Palladio
Sculptors:
- 15th Century: Ghiberti, Donatello, Verrocchio
- 16th Century: Michelangelo
Types of Colonies
Settlement Colonies:
Sparsely populated areas absorbing surplus population from the UK and Northern Europe, such as Australia and Canada. Canada, as a large dominion, was granted self-government while remaining part of the British Empire.
Exploitation Colonies:
Supplied raw materials and markets to the metropolis. British possessions in the West Indies, Guyana, and Honduras provided tropical products. India was a typical exploitation colony.
Protectorates:
Territories with a developed form of government.
Mergers
Cartels:
Agreements between companies manufacturing similar products to fix prices or wages and eliminate or reduce competition.
Trusts:
Formed from the merger of companies engaged in one activity or different stages of a production process.
British Industrial Revolution
Causes:
Abundant natural resources, population growth, growing demand, international trade, capital, technological innovations, etc. Britain became the first world power, with an unparalleled economy until the late 19th century.
Spread of Industrialization in Continental Europe
Overview:
The British attempted to retain knowledge of new manufacturing techniques, but organizational forms inevitably spread across Europe. European industrialization followed British patterns but developed its own characteristics. While British industrialization relied on private initiative, continental industrialization was more influenced by state decisions and banking.
Treaty of Utrecht & French Revolution
Treaty of Utrecht (1713):
Ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Spain relinquished all Spanish territories, and Philip V renounced his claim to the French throne in exchange for being recognized as King of Spain. England gained trading rights with America.
French Revolution:
Causes:
- Financial crisis (King’s bankruptcy)
- Bourgeoisie influenced by Enlightenment ideas
- Social crisis, including famine
Protagonists:
- Louis XVI
- Estates-General (clergy, nobility, bourgeoisie)
- National Guard
Bourgeois Revolution:
Louis XVI, facing bankruptcy, convened the Estates-General to borrow money from the bourgeoisie, as the nobility refused to pay taxes. The bourgeoisie demanded voting by individual rather than by estate, giving them a majority. The King refused, and the bourgeoisie declared themselves representatives of the French people.
Deeds and Achievements:
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