Age of Exploration: Discoveries and Conquests
European Trade Routes and the Age of Exploration
In the Middle Ages, European trade with the East was conducted through the Silk Road. Merchants traveled the Mediterranean, reached Constantinople, and from there, proceeded to Asia. The African Path involved reaching the Madeira and Azores islands, and later, the Gulf of Guinea. Regarding the Map of India, Vasco da Gama reached the coast of India in 1498, opening a sea route to the Moluccas. This era saw great development in cartography, with portulans (marine charts) detailing coasts and ports. New technologies, such as the rudder, compass, and astrolabe, facilitated these voyages.
Christopher Columbus and His Voyages
Christopher Columbus believed he could reach Asia by sailing west. He presented his project to the Catholic Monarchs and signed the Capitulations of Santa Fe. He departed from the port of Palos in 1492 with one ship and two caravels, crewed by 105 sailors. In 1492, he made landfall on Guanahani, which Columbus named San Salvador. He then reached Cuba and Haiti. He returned to Spain in 1493. In that same year, he settled on the island Columbus called Hispaniola (Santo Domingo). His third voyage, in 1498, started from Cadiz and reached the island of Trinidad and the mouth of the Orinoco River in South America. His fourth voyage, in 1502, departed from Cadiz and explored the coast of Central America.
Treaty of Tordesillas
The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed on June 7, 1494, was an agreement between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, monarchs of Castile and Aragon, and John II, King of Portugal. It established a division of areas for conquest and annexation in the New World, drawing a line through the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent territories. It was a significant geographical and political agreement between Spain and Portugal.
Columbus’s Miscalculations and Further Discoveries
Columbus’s Errors: While he correctly believed the Earth was round, he underestimated its diameter. He also believed there was only one ocean between Europe and Asia. The Discovery of the Pacific occurred when Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and encountered a new ocean, which he named the South Sea. The First Circumnavigation of the World was organized in 1519, an expedition under the service of the Spanish Crown, led by Ferdinand Magellan. It established a maritime passage communicating the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. They departed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda.
The Capitulations of Santa Fe are documents signed on April 17, 1492, in the town of Santa Fe (Granada), by the Catholic Monarchs. They reflect the agreements reached between the Kings and Christopher Columbus on the expedition to the Indies by sea westward.
Civilizations of the Americas and Spanish Conquest
The Unknown Continent: When Europeans arrived, the indigenous peoples had developed prosperous civilizations and created great empires: Aztec, Maya, and Inca. Europeans initially called these lands the Indies.
- The Maya: Skilled farmers cultivating maize, they were organized into independent city-states. They possessed advanced knowledge of astronomy and mathematics, and constructed impressive temples and palaces.
- The Aztecs: A warlike people who conquered a vast empire, with political and religious power concentrated in the hands of an emperor. Agriculture and trade were their primary economic activities.
- The Incas: An agricultural society governed by an emperor, who was treated as a god and known as the Inca.
Conquests of Mexico and Peru
Conquest of Mexico: Hernán Cortés departed from Cuba in 1518 and landed in Mexico, which was inhabited by the Aztecs. He subdued them militarily, seizing their riches and taking their emperor hostage. Conquest of Peru: In 1531, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. The expedition involved battles against the Incas, culminating in their defeat. One of the bloodiest episodes was the battle of Cajamarca, where many Incas were killed.
Spanish Colonization and its Impact
The Conquered Territories: These territories became part of the Crown of Castile. Spanish language, culture, religion, and laws were introduced. The Council of the Indies was established to oversee American affairs. Spanish America: The new American territories became a major source of revenue for Castile, providing land and mines. Labor in fields and mines relied heavily on Indian labor. The Crown attempted to prevent abuses through the Laws of the Indies. Fray Bartolomé de las Casas denounced the exploitation of Native Americans by the colonizers.
American Trade and Colonial Society
American Trade: Gold, silver, corn, potatoes, and cacao were brought from America. The port of Seville held a monopoly on this trade. In 1503, the House of Trade was created in Seville to control commercial traffic and ensure the collection of the royal fifth for the crown. Colonial society was conservative and racist. The children of Spaniards born in America (Creoles) were initially of lower status than the Spaniards themselves and were prevented from holding the highest offices. Below them on the social scale were Indians and mestizos. Slaves were imported from Equatorial Africa and occupied the lowest rung of society.