Age of Exploration & Enlightenment: Revolution and Reform
Geographical Discoveries
Driven by the search for a route to India and the pursuit of raw materials, luxury goods, and precious metals, the Spanish and Portuguese spearheaded exploration along the African coast. Inventions like the astrolabe, the compass, and safer ships emboldened them to venture farther. Key events include the discovery of America in 1492, the arrival in India via the African coast in 1498, and Magellan and El Cano’s circumnavigation of the globe (1519-1522), proving the Earth’s round shape.
Implications of the Discoveries
For Europe:
- Economy: Influx of gold and silver, discovery of new products (corn, potato, tomato, tobacco), and development of Atlantic trade.
- Social: Emigration to America, rise of the commercial bourgeoisie.
- Political: Establishment of vast colonial empires and ensuing colonial rivalries.
- Cultural: Broader understanding of the world, expansion of the European cultural model.
For America:
- Economy: Exploitation and plunder of natural resources, introduction of new crops (sugarcane, cotton, coffee).
- Social: Introduction of enslaved Africans, racial mixing.
- Political: Loss of independence, subjugation to European powers.
- Cultural: Loss of cultural identity, Europeanization of culture (language, religion, food).
The Reformation
During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church held immense wealth, respect, and fear. In the 15th century, humanists began criticizing the Church. Martin Luther spearheaded this movement, writing his 95 Theses, which sparked a civil war in Germany between Catholics and Lutherans thirteen years later.
Factors Contributing to Luther’s Success:
- Luther’s denunciation of the clergy’s luxury, corruption, inadequate preparation, and hoarding of wealth.
- Support from the ruling classes in Germany and Nordic countries for separation from Rome.
- Social and economic crises, with the poor viewing the attack on the Church as a material and spiritual solution.
Lutheran Reform Ideas:
- Salvation through faith in Christ alone (no need for indulgences).
- Every Christian is a priest (the church within each person).
- The Bible is the sole authority, open to individual interpretation.
The Counter-Reformation
The Catholic Church responded by convening the Council of Trent to reaffirm Christian faith, supported by the German Emperor and King Charles V of Spain. Key actions of the Council:
- The Bible is not the only source of faith; Holy Tradition also holds authority.
- The Church holds sole authority to interpret the Bible.
- Good works are necessary for salvation, not just faith.
- The Pope is the supreme authority.
- Priests to receive better training in seminaries.
The Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, played a key role in combating Protestantism, focusing on converting heretics and pagans. They served under the Pope’s direct authority as a well-trained priestly elite.
The Old Regime
The term “Old Regime” refers to pre-1789 society, characterized by a class-based structure, an agrarian economy, and absolute monarchy.
Stratified Society:
- Nobility: Defended Christian society.
- Clergy: Cared for souls.
- People: Worked to support the entire society.
The nobility enjoyed tax exemptions, special laws and courts, and held political and military positions. The clergy lived off their landholdings, alms, and tithes, forming a powerful group. The common people had duties but few rights, comprising farmers, artisans, townspeople, and minorities.
Economy:
Agriculture dominated the European economy, employing the majority of the population. Rudimentary techniques and inadequate production led to frequent famines and epidemics. Crafts developed further, with artisans organized into guilds, but production remained limited and expensive.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment, an 18th-century intellectual movement, challenged the principles of the Old Regime. It championed reason as the primary means of understanding the world, rejecting anything beyond reason’s grasp as superstition. It advocated education, progress, and improved living conditions, denouncing religious intolerance and proposing reason-based moral codes.
Key Enlightenment Ideas:
- Nature is man’s environment.
- Reason should guide perspectives.
- Fundamental human rights.
- Distancing from religion.
- Education is the foundation of progress.
Key figures include Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot.
Enlightened Despotism
While European monarchies retained absolute power, some rulers attempted to incorporate Enlightenment ideas. These enlightened despots and their ministers implemented reforms for the people, but their motto remained “everything for the people, but without the people.” Reforms included education, agricultural modernization, and trade development, though economic reform and absolute power proved incompatible. These contradictions paved the way for 19th-century revolutions.
The American Revolution
Inspired by Enlightenment ideals, the American colonies launched the first colonial insurrection, asserting their rights against British taxes and trade monopolies. Lacking representation in the London Parliament, they refused to obey British laws. On July 4, 1776, the colonies declared independence, enshrining principles of freedom, happiness, and the rulers’ duty to respect inalienable rights.
The American Constitution established a federal republic with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The Bill of Rights guaranteed freedoms of religion, press, expression, assembly, and trial by jury, along with due process of law.
Trade and the Rise of Commercial Companies
Trade occurred in local markets and fairs, transported by beasts of burden. Within Europe, poor roads hindered transport. Commercial companies specializing in maritime trade emerged, enriching the bourgeoisie.
Absolute Monarchy and the Rise of Parliamentary Monarchy
Absolute monarchy reached its peak in 17th-century Spain and France, characterized by the king’s complete authority, a standing army, a centralized government, support from the nobility and bourgeoisie, the Church’s subservience to the king, and suppression of dissent. England transitioned to a parliamentary monarchy, establishing the rule of law, separation of powers, and a political pact protecting individual rights and property.