Age of Exploration: New Trade Routes, Discoveries, and European Growth
1. Why Were the Discoveries Made?
Countries Known to Europe in the 15th Century
At the beginning of the 15th century, Europeans primarily knew Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. The existence of India, China, and Japan was known through Marco Polo’s journeys and trade routes that brought silk and spices to Europe. However, detailed knowledge of these lands was limited, and the rest of the world remained largely a mystery. Europeans had not explored the interiors of Africa and Asia, and they were unaware of the existence of America and Oceania.
Reasons for the Discoveries
In the 15th century, European countries launched numerous maritime expeditions for several key reasons:
- Need for New Trade Routes: The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 disrupted existing trade routes between Europe and the Far East. This prompted Europeans to seek new routes to Asia, either around the African coast or across the Atlantic Ocean.
- Technological Advancements:
- Portolan Charts: New maps, called portolan charts, were developed, showing coastlines and sea obstacles with straight lines indicating the shortest distances between ports.
- Navigational Instruments: The development and improvement of navigational instruments like the compass, astrolabe, and quadrant aided exploration.
- Shipbuilding: Improvements in ship design, particularly the caravel, allowed for longer voyages. Caravels were faster and more maneuverable, utilizing both square and triangular sails.
2. What Were the New Sea Routes?
Portuguese Expeditions
From the early 15th century, Portugal actively sought a new sea route to India around the coast of Africa. Portuguese monarchs and Prince Henry the Navigator organized various expeditions:
- The Madeira Islands were discovered in 1418 and the Azores in 1431.
- Later expeditions explored the African coast.
- In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, opening the sea route to the Indian Ocean.
- In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, establishing a new route between Europe and Asia that bypassed Turkish-controlled territories.
The Portuguese established trading posts along these new routes, creating a vast empire and becoming a major world power.
Spanish and Portuguese Rivalry
The Crown of Castile became Portugal’s main rival in the search for new routes to India. The Castilians opted for a westward route across the Atlantic, aiming to circumnavigate the Earth. This was a risky endeavor, involving long voyages far from the coast into unknown waters.
The Caravel
While the caravel had existed for centuries, the 15th and 16th-century versions were faster and more spacious. They typically had three masts (though sometimes two or four), square sails for speed, and triangular sails for maneuverability. With crews of fewer than thirty men and without the need for oarsmen, caravels had more space for cargo, making long voyages possible. They were also equipped with cannons for defense against pirates and enemy ships.
3. How Was America Discovered?
The Discovery of America
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, believed he could reach the east coast of Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. Despite some believing the Earth was flat, Columbus, convinced of its roundness, secured funding from the Catholic Monarchs for his expedition. On August 3, 1492, an expedition of ninety sailors and three ships – the Pinta, the Niña, and the Santa María – departed from Palos de la Frontera, Huelva. Columbus’s calculations were inaccurate; he underestimated the Earth’s size. After weeks at sea, land was sighted in October 1492. Columbus mistakenly believed he had reached Cipango (Japan), but he had actually landed on an unknown continent, later named America. Columbus made three more voyages, exploring and establishing Castilian dominion over these territories. A faster and safer route to America was found on the second voyage. On his last two voyages, Columbus explored parts of Central and South America. He returned to Spain in 1504 and died two years later, still believing he had reached Asia. However, in 1502, Italian sailor Amerigo Vespucci recognized that these lands were part of a new continent, which was subsequently named America in his honor.
4. What Was the First Voyage Around the World?
Magellan’s Expedition
In 1519, an expedition of five ships and 250 sailors, led by Ferdinand Magellan and his second-in-command, Juan Sebastián Elcano, departed from Seville. Their objective was to find a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to reach the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, in Asia. In 1520, they discovered a strait connecting the two oceans, later named the Strait of Magellan. They sailed to the Philippines, where Magellan was killed in a conflict with natives. Elcano took command, leading the expedition to the Moluccas, where they loaded valuable spices. They then sailed back to Spain. After three years, only eighteen men and one ship, the Victoria, returned, completing the first circumnavigation of the world and proving the Earth’s spherical shape. Vasco Núñez de Balboa had previously discovered the Pacific Ocean.
1. Why Did the Economy and Population Grow?
The Recovery of the Population
In the 14th century, Europe experienced a crisis due to poor harvests, wars, and disease. The most devastating event was the plague, or Black Death, which broke out in 1348, decimating the continent and killing more than a quarter of the population. By the 15th century, the situation improved, and the population began a slow recovery. By 1500, Europe’s population had nearly returned to pre-plague levels, and the 16th century saw significant population growth.
Economic Growth
The European economy expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries. Population growth led to increased demand for agricultural products and crafts. Geographical discoveries stimulated trade with newly discovered lands. Improvements in the banking system and new payment and lending methods facilitated financial transactions. Cities, such as Venice, Florence, Antwerp, Lisbon, Seville, and London, became centers of economic power due to the concentration of artisans and trade.
2. How Did Society Change?
Three Estates
Society remained divided into three estates, although some significant changes occurred. The nobles and clergy continued to be the most privileged classes, exempt from direct taxes, dominating society, and holding the most important positions. They constituted a minority.