Agricultural Economy and Society in the Old Regime
1. Land Ownership
- Ownership of the Land: In the Old Regime, agriculture was the most important source of wealth. A small part of the land was private property, freely available to use and sell. The other part belonged to the Church, a municipality, or the Crown.
- Plenary Power: Landowners had full power over their land. They economically exploited it and could not sell it. These lands were called *Señorio Territorial* and were divided into:
- Demesne: Land and production, where they had their residence.
- Mansos: Were transferred to free men who paid a census.
- Serfs: Paid with product and labor.
- Manorial Rights: Landlords received rents from their land. Manorial rights are divided into:
- Territorial: Farmers were forced to perform personal work in the *Señorial* reserve and pay a percentage of the harvest or fees for the use of the mill.
- Jurisdictional: Power on their land and even on the outside. They acted as royalty, providing military service, collecting taxes, tolls for bridges, and transportation of goods.
2. Insufficient Agricultural Production
It was a subsistence agriculture system. Farmers used archaic methods. They engaged in mixed farming, especially that of cereals. There were two types of holdings:
- Open Fields: Cereals were produced, and fallow was practiced.
- Communal Lands: Pasture or forest.
Livestock Production: It was insufficient. Animals fed on grasses and weeds. There was a permanent subsistence crisis, as there was little milk and meat production. People were fed grain, and this caused hunger, malnutrition, food crises, and protests (bread riots).
3. Stagnant Population
There was a high birth rate (each woman had an average of five children) but also high mortality due to malnutrition, poor sanitation, and scarce medical resources, which led to diseases and epidemics. Life expectancy was very low (45).
4. Traditional Industry and Manufacturing
In the cities, there were guilds, groups of craftsmen of the same profession who controlled the volume of production, techniques, and sales prices. Later, domestic work appeared. Traders and artisans provided some farmers with raw materials and tools to develop products at home, and then they traded the production in the markets. Another model was manufacturing, establishments subsidized by the state or private individuals, where many workers were concentrated under one roof to elaborate articles.
5. The Deficiencies of Transportation
The communication network was limited, and the means of transport were very rudimentary.
- Roads and Highways: They were in bad shape except for highways. The most used vehicles were carriages and stagecoaches.
- Navigation:
- Maritime: Used the wind’s strength and had limited load capacity.
- River: It was the easiest and cheapest, but it needed hydrographic conditions that not all countries had. Britain developed an extensive network of river navigation.
6. Internal Trade and Colonial Trade
The small surplus, the low level of specialization in agriculture, and the inadequate transport system did not allow internal trade to develop. Internal trade was carried out in local and county fairs. From the 16th century, trade between areas separated by sea began. New routes were opened, and trade increased. The triangular trade (Africa, America, Europe) stands out. European products were exchanged for slaves who were sold in America in exchange for cocoa, tobacco, and sugar. There was a development of commercial capitalism with the need to finance expeditions, credits, etc.