Agriculture, Trade, and Societal Shifts in 18th-Century Europe
Innovations in Agriculture
The economy was based on agriculture, and grain, vineyards, and olive groves were the most common crops. Between 80% and 90% of the population lived in the countryside. Technical resources were inadequate, and crises often prevented subsistence living. There were new changes in agriculture, including new crops, vegetables, fodder plants, and technical innovations such as Jethro Tull’s seed drill in 1701.
Guild Workshops in Manufacturing
Manufacturing was controlled by guilds that oversaw the operation of workshops in each city. Manufacturing workshops began to be established, employing tens or even hundreds of workers, including children. These workshops were often owned by monarchs, while others were privately owned, leading to the accumulation of fortunes. A cottage industry extended, with peasant women alternating between agricultural work and producing cloth for merchants, a system known as the domestic system.
The Continued Growth of Trade
Overseas trade was a major economic activity during the 18th century, extending to America, Asia, and Africa in what is known as triangular trade. This trade was controlled by European monarchs who applied the economic system of mercantilism.
Slow Population Growth in the Old Regime
The Old Regime was characterized by a high birth rate and high mortality rate, leading to slow population growth. Subsistence crises resulted in poverty and hunger. However, early signs of change emerged as Europe began to experience population growth. Mortality rates began to decline, life expectancy increased, and there was better nutrition and improved resistance to epidemics and diseases.
Class Society
Society was divided into classes, with the clergy and nobility being privileged, and the rest of the population not. The nobility did not pay taxes, possessed most of the land, collected rents, and reserved certain positions in the court. They could not be imprisoned or put on trial without special procedures. The clergy consisted of archbishops, cardinals, bishops, abbots, and canons, while the lower clergy included priests, friars, and monks. The non-privileged estates represented 80% of the population in France and were known as the Third Estate. They were primarily farmers, and this group gave rise to the bourgeoisie, who could not participate in political power.
The State in the Eighteenth Century
The state in the 18th century was the result of territorial unification. Monarchs had created standing armies, organized complex bureaucracies, and engaged in diplomacy.
Absolutism
Absolutism was based on the principle of the sovereignty of royal authority. Absolute power was legitimated by divine law, as kings were believed to be chosen by God. Only natural and customary law could limit royal power. However, decisions were often limited by the influence of the privileged classes.
Parliamentarism
In the English parliamentary monarchy, established in 1688, the monarch’s decisions were controlled by the legislative power, which resided in Parliament. The Prime Minister exercised executive power. Members of the House of Commons were elected by limited male suffrage, and it was essential to belong to certain families to have the right to vote.
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened despots considered equality and tolerance to be the basis of human relations. Notable enlightened despots include Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Charles III of Spain. They maintained absolute power.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was a literary, philosophical, and scientific movement that developed in 18th-century Europe. It emphasized reason and believed that humans were born to be happy, that everyone is different and should be tolerant, and that nature should be respected. Enlightenment ideas were spread through books, newspapers, and gatherings.
- J. Locke (1632-1704) proposed a new form of state that would avoid the concentration of power in a few hands and guarantee individual liberties.
- Voltaire (1694-1778) criticized French society and championed freedom of thought and religious tolerance.
- Montesquieu (1689-1755) believed that freedom would be possible if the concentration of power by absolutist monarchs were limited.
- J.J. Rousseau (1712-1778), a philosopher and writer, believed that nature was good and described the wild man as a free man, while society enslaved him. He wrote “The Social Contract” in 1762.
Early Industrial Revolution in England
Conditions for the Industrial Revolution in England included increased agricultural production, abundant labor, and sufficient capital to invest in factories. These were joined by the expansion of trade, technical innovations, a new business mentality, and a political framework conducive to the demise of aristocratic relations.
Agrarian Transformation
In agriculture, the first English substitute traditional forms of exploitation were new cropping systems and technical innovations. These led to increased production, product diversification, and specialization in certain crops in some areas.
Changes to Land Ownership
The process of enclosures led to the disappearance of self-sufficient village communities as the English Parliament issued laws allowing for the accumulation of capital.
New Tillage System
The Norfolk system replaced fallow land with legumes and fodder crops, allowing for larger amounts of livestock to be confined. New lands were broken, and new species were expanded. Obtaining surplus food favored population growth, surplus rural labor, and increased income.
Great Britain’s Population Increase
Great Britain experienced significant population growth due to a decline in the birth rate and high mortality. Internal migration led to a rural exodus, and cities grew remarkably.
Expansion of Trade in Great Britain
Great Britain expanded the volume and composition of its international trade, establishing an increasing flow of cheap raw materials from the colonies.
Technical Innovations
Hydropower was the first major breakthrough in this field. In textiles, the flying shuttle was invented by J. Kay in 1733, and J. Watt’s steam engine led to the development of railways and steamboats.
Pioneer Sectors
The textile industry initially used hand looms and spindles.
Textile Industry
The cotton sector saw new innovations in production. Large cotton plantations in North America, using an exploited slave system, provided cheap cotton. The import of cotton from India was forbidden.
Iron Industry
Iron was produced in small quantities and used to make farming tools. Abraham Darby discovered that coal could be used to melt iron, and the puddling process removed impurities from iron.
Railroad
In 1825, the first passenger line was inaugurated, covering the route between Stockton and Darlington. Between 1840 and 1850, 10,000 km of track were laid.
Liberal Capitalism
Liberal capitalism is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of maximum profits, and capital accumulation. Production is directed towards a market governed by the law of supply and demand. Adam Smith was the main theorist of economic liberalism.
Other Industrialization Models
Industrialization began in the United Kingdom and spread to Belgium, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States in the second half of the 19th century.
- Belgium became an independent state in 1830. It was rich in coal and agriculture and had a good transport network. Trade quadrupled, and there was significant investment of capital abroad.
- France was a major exporter of capital to the Mediterranean, Europe, and Russia.
- Germany: Before its unification in 1871, Prussia had begun the process of industrialization most strongly, thanks to the Zollverein (customs union). It had abundant natural resources, a powerful metallurgical industry, an extensive railway network, abundant financial capital, and a developed chemical industry.
- United States: Before the Civil War, there was rapid development of agriculture. The field was mechanized early due to a shortage of manpower. Growth in the market was aided by the effective colonization of the American West. Technological innovation led to a system of production and business concentration.
- Japan evolved from a feudal regime to an industrial state. Emperor Mutsuhito was pressured by Western powers to begin the Meiji era, or era of light, which included railway construction and the establishment of banks. Japan’s economic expansion was based on abundant, cheap, and disciplined labor, the exploitation of farmers, and capital accumulation.
The Great Depression of 1873
The Great Depression of 1873 was triggered by overproduction and deflation (falling prices). In agriculture, the crisis was alarming, as it lowered the purchasing power of farmers. The crisis spread to industry, leading to bankruptcies and increased unemployment. The consequences of the depression included fluctuations in economic cycles. Small businesses could not overcome the crisis, leading to the rise of financial capital.