Al-Andalus and Christian Kingdoms (11th-15th Centuries)
Al-Andalus (11th-15th Centuries)
The Taifa Kingdoms and Almoravids
After the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba in the 11th century, the Iberian Peninsula saw the rise of the Taifa kingdoms. Muslim dominance was challenged by the expanding Christian kingdoms. Following Alfonso VI’s conquest of Toledo, the Almoravids, a Berber nomadic group from North Africa, established a vast empire in the early 11th century.
The Almohads and the Nasrid Kingdom
The Almoravids were later replaced by the Almohads, another North African Berber dynasty. The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada managed to survive for over two centuries due to the support of North African Muslims and skillful diplomacy with the Castilian crown, agreeing to pay tribute in exchange for peace. However, internal conflicts and weakening alliances led to its conquest by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.
Culture and Art
This period saw significant cultural and artistic achievements. Historians and philosophers like Averroes and Ibn Khaldun made notable contributions. Advances were also made in marine cartography. Magnificent buildings were constructed, adorned with rich decorations. The Giralda, originally part of a mosque, and the Alhambra palace in Granada are prime examples of Almohad and Nasrid architecture, respectively.
Christian Kingdoms (11th-15th Centuries)
Evolution and Expansion
Between the 11th and 13th centuries, the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula consolidated their power and expanded their territories, taking advantage of the internal struggles within Al-Andalus. The kingdoms of Castile and León were united in 1230 under Ferdinand III after periods of both union and separation. Portugal became independent in the 12th century. The kingdoms of Aragon and Navarre were united between 1076 and 1135. During this period, Alfonso I conquered lands in the Ebro Valley, including Zaragoza, Tudela, and Daroca. After his death, the kingdoms separated. Aragon formed the core of the Crown of Aragon, while Navarre remained independent.
The Crown of Aragon and Navarre
The Crown of Aragon was formed in 1137 through the marriage of Petronila, heir to Aragon, and Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona. After separating from Aragon, Navarre faced annexationist pressures from both Castile and Aragon. Lacking a border with Muslim territories for expansion, Navarre’s foreign policy was often linked to France through royal marriages.
Castilian and Aragonese Expansion (14th-15th Centuries)
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Christian kingdoms faced numerous challenges: political conflicts between monarchs and nobles, poor harvests, the devastating Black Death of 1348, and social unrest in cities. Castile expanded its territory after capturing the Strait of Gibraltar in 1462 and conquering the Canary Islands during the 15th century. The Crown of Aragon continued its Mediterranean expansion with the conquest of Sardinia and the duchies of Athens and Neopatria.
Organization of Christian Kingdoms
Monarchy and Institutions
The monarchy was the principal institution in the peninsular kingdoms. The monarchs believed their power came from God and exercised extensive authority: they enacted laws, administered justice, controlled currency, and appointed officials. In Castile, a unified monarchy emerged with increasing royal authority. The Crown of Aragon was a composite monarchy, comprising several kingdoms (Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, and Mallorca), each with its own institutions. This limited the king’s power as he had to negotiate with each kingdom.
Government Institutions
Kings relied on several institutions to govern. The Curia Regis, an assembly of nobles, bishops, and abbots, advised the king. The Cortes, assemblies representing the estates of the realm, were summoned by the king to address matters of governance. Some cities also had representation in the Cortes. Territorial administration became increasingly complex as kings struggled to control their territories effectively. Nobles, both secular and ecclesiastic, enjoyed considerable autonomy within their own domains. Cities had their own governments, initially led by assemblies of citizens but later controlled by smaller groups of nobles, wealthy merchants, and other elites.