Al-Andalus and the Conquest of America
Theme 2: The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Al-Andalus
2. Political Developments of Al-Andalus: The Conquest, the Emirate, and the Caliphate of Cordoba
In April 711, a Berber army under the command of Tariq crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. Two months later, they defeated the Visigoth King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Within the next three years, the Arabs and Berbers secured control of the mainland, achieving this more through surrender or covenant than military victory. Unlike the Visigoths, who attempted to impose political dominance, the Muslim conquerors established themselves at strategic points.
2.1 The Emirate of Cordoba and Racial Conflict
Muslim expansion in Europe was halted by their defeat at Poitiers in 732. Subsequently, they settled south of the Pyrenees. The number of Arabs and Berbers reached approximately 100,000. Traditional Muslim tolerance towards other religions (Christianity and Judaism), coupled with the socio-economic hardship faced by much of the Iberian population, explains the limited resistance encountered by the Muslims. The Berber revolt against the Arabs in 741 caused further conflict. Around 750, the Muslim conquerors settled in the Iberian Peninsula, which they called Al-Andalus, with Cordoba as its capital. The rapid conversion of Hispano-Romans to Islam was likely due to the weakness of their Christian beliefs and the opportunity to retain property or be exempt from certain taxes. These converts were known as Muladi. The most explosive events of this crisis occurred in Toledo and Cordoba.
2.3 Abd al-Rahman III and the Caliphate
When Al-Hakam II died in 976, the new caliph was overshadowed by his hajib, Almanzor, who dominated the state and established a palace-city outside Cordoba (Medina Azahara) from which he ruled Al-Andalus until his death in 1002. Lacking royal blood, Almanzor’s dictatorship relied on continuous military victories. His regime, based on force, barely survived his death. In 1031, the Caliphate of Cordoba collapsed.
Almanzor destroyed: Santiago de Compostela, Zamora, León, Barcelona, and San Millán de la Cogolla. He was defeated and wounded at Calatayud (Soria).
3. The Crisis of the Eleventh Century: Taifa Kingdoms and Northern Empires
3.1 The Disintegration of the Caliphate: Taifa Kingdoms
Almanzor’s death in 1002 marked the beginning of the Caliphate’s decline. It fragmented into twenty small Taifa kingdoms. The most powerful (Zaragoza, Toledo, Badajoz, and Seville) were ruled by Arabs and Muladis. Others were controlled by slaves, and some, like Granada, were seized by Berbers.
3.3 The Almoravids
The fall of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile sparked fear among the Muslims, prompting them to seek help from the Almoravids, a fundamentalist Islamic movement among the Berber tribes of Morocco. This provided them with a pretext to enter the Peninsula and suppress the Taifa kingdoms. By 1110, the Almoravid empire stretched from the Senegal and Niger rivers in Africa to the Ebro Valley. The abolition of tax exemptions and control of gold routes strengthened the Almoravid economy. However, their success was short-lived. From 1125, problems mounted. In North Africa, the Almohad movement challenged them. In Iberia, Alfonso I the Battler conquered much of the Ebro Valley, led an expedition against Andalusia, and attracted many Mozarabs to his kingdom. Andalusians revolted against the Almoravids, who had imposed cultural restrictions, persecuted Jews, and reimposed harsh taxes. Between 1144 and 1145, Al-Andalus disintegrated into new Taifa kingdoms.
3.5 The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada
A 1246 treaty established the Nasrid kingdom of Granada as a vassal state. Its economic prosperity and maritime trade from Malaga sustained the Nasrid dynasty. The court of Granada became a center of intellectual culture. The kingdom’s survival depended on the Castilian kings. In 1492, Granada fell, marking the end of Islamic rule in Spain.
6. Hispanic America: 16th and 17th Centuries
6.1 Discovery, Exploration, and Conquest of America
6.1.1 Christopher Columbus and His Voyages
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, believed the Earth was spherical and sought to reach Asia (known for its spices, as described by Marco Polo) by sailing west, rather than east like the Portuguese. He initially sought funding from the King of Portugal, who remained unconvinced by Columbus’s theories. He then appealed to the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, who postponed any decision until after the conquest of Granada. After Granada’s fall, Columbus persisted. Ferdinand refused, but Isabella agreed, albeit with conditions: the titles of Admiral, Governor of the discovered lands, and one-tenth of the riches. Doubts about Columbus’s theories and the Castilian-Portuguese Treaty of 1479 led to the Capitulations of Santa Fe, granting Columbus his titles and the promised share of wealth. Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera (Cádiz) on August 3 with three ships: two caravels, the Pinta and the Niña, captained by the Pinzón brothers, and the Santa María, commanded by Juan de la Cosa. After stopping at La Gomera (Canary Islands), they sighted an island in the Bahamas (Guanahani) on October 12, which they named San Salvador.
6.1.4 The Conquests
Hernán Cortés: A nobleman from Extremadura and the most educated of the conquistadors (with a bachelor’s degree from the University of Salamanca), Cortés conquered Mexico in 1519. He founded the city of Veracruz. In Mexico, the Aztec civilization, with its capital Tenochtitlan, was well-developed. Fearing invasion, the Aztecs launched a surprise attack, known as La Noche Triste. Despite initial setbacks, Cortés, allied with enemy tribes, eventually conquered Tenochtitlan, which was then destroyed and replaced by Mexico City. Initially, Cortés treated Moctezuma II well, but this changed after La Noche Triste.
Pedro de Valdivia: Born in La Serena (Extremadura), Valdivia conquered Chile and founded Santiago, Concepción, and Valdivia.
Francisco Pizarro: Conquered the Inca Empire in Peru.
Pedro de Mendoza: Conquered the Río de la Plata region (Argentina) and founded Buenos Aires. His life ended tragically.
Hernando de Soto: Explored the Mississippi River.