Al-Andalus, Habsburg Decline, and Bourbon Reforms in Spain
Muslim Rule in Al-Andalus
Rural Economy and Land Tenure
In the rural world of Al-Andalus, Muslims introduced significant technical improvements, notably promoting irrigation practices by regulating water use. This facilitated the spread of crops such as rice, cotton, and citrus fruits. Sheep farming and harvesting were also encouraged. Large tracts of land, known as latifundia or estates, were often held by Arabs. The most common form of exploitation was partnership (profit sharing), and many peasants were tied to the land they were born on.
Urban Life, Crafts, and Trade
Urban centers in Al-Andalus typically had an irregular layout. The Medina served as the central part, housing the Souk (market) and the main mosque (examples include Córdoba, Toledo, and early Madrid). Cities like Hispalis (Seville) were often walled, situated on high ground, and featured mixed populations. Craft workshops were frequently organized by trade along specific streets and into guilds (associations of artisans). These guilds aimed to prevent excessive competition, combat corruption, and ensure an adequate supply to meet demand. Commerce was highly important, necessitating well-maintained roads and ports. Trade occurred externally with North Africa and internally with the Christian kingdoms through the souks and specialized markets. Slaves were a significant commodity in this trade.
Social Structure in Al-Andalus
Society was generally divided into several tiers:
- The aristocracy (Jassa)
- Wealthy merchants
- The common people (Amma), comprising artisans and laborers (both tied and free).
Christians and Jews (Dhimmis) lived under Muslim rule and were required to pay higher taxes (like the Jizya) as non-Muslims.
The Crisis of the Spanish Monarchy (17th Century)
Causes of the 1640 Revolts
By 1640, the bankruptcy of the Spanish monarchy was evident, highlighted by major revolts in Catalonia and Portugal. The primary causes included:
- Heavy tax burdens imposed by the Crown.
- Widespread dissatisfaction among various social groups, including the aristocracy who felt alienated from the Court.
- The authoritarian policies of the Count-Duke of Olivares, the valido (chief minister) of Philip IV.
The Catalan Revolt (1640-1653)
Olivares had failed in his attempt to implement the Union of Arms in 1636, a policy designed to compel all realms of the monarchy to contribute troops and funds for mutual defense. Following Spain’s entry into war with France, Spanish troops were stationed in Catalonia to defend the border. This presence led to tensions, culminating in riots by peasants and soldiers in 1640. On June 7, 1640 (Corpus Christi Day, known as the Corpus de Sang), reapers entered Barcelona and assassinated the viceroy, the Count of Santa Coloma. A governing board (Junta de Braços) replaced the viceroy and, facing the advance of Castilian troops, eventually accepted French sovereignty. The French subsequently defeated the Castilians at Montjuïc in 1641 and captured Roussillon and Lleida in 1642.
However, difficulties under French administration and the fall of Olivares in 1643 paved the way for reconciliation. By 1652-1653, Catalonia rejoined the Spanish Crown, with Philip IV agreeing to confirm its traditional charters and privileges (fueros).
The Portuguese Restoration War (1640)
In December 1640, Portugal rose in revolt. Grievances included:
- Spain’s failure to protect Portuguese colonies from Dutch incursions.
- Spanish officials taking positions in the Portuguese government.
- The negative impact of Spain’s international wars on Portuguese trade.
Consequently, Portugal declared independence, rallying around the Duke of Braganza, who was crowned King John IV.
The Early Bourbons and Reforms
Philip V: Succession and Centralization
Following the death of Charles II without a direct heir and the subsequent War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), Philip V of Bourbon was recognized as the new King of Spain by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Philip V (reigned 1700-1724, 1724-1746) surrounded himself with French, Italian, and Spanish administrators, such as Cardinal Alberoni and José Patiño. His reforms aimed to centralize the Spanish state, imitating the French model.
The New Plant Decrees
A key element of this centralization was the implementation of the New Plant Decrees (Decretos de Nueva Planta). These decrees progressively abolished the specific laws, institutions, and privileges (fueros) of the realms of the Crown of Aragon (Aragon and Valencia in 1707, Mallorca in 1715, and Catalonia in 1716). Key changes included:
- Imposition of Castilian laws and courts.
- Abolition of internal borders and customs duties between Castile and Aragon.
- Establishment of Castilian as the administrative language.
- Introduction of a new tax system, often involving a form of land registry or assessment (catastro), intended to survey the wealth of the population for taxation purposes.
The entire territory, except for the Basque provinces and Navarre which retained their privileges for supporting Philip V during the war, was largely aligned with the Castilian administrative and legal model.
Administrative and Economic Policies under Philip V
The central government was reorganized into five Secretariats of State (Secretarías de Despacho) advising the king. The territory was divided into provinces or intendancies, headed by centrally appointed officials. The army was restructured along French lines. Royal authority over the Church (regalism) was asserted. A policy promoting industry and trade was developed, characterized by mercantilist ideas, the removal of internal customs barriers, state support for Royal Factories (Reales Fábricas), and the creation of chartered trading companies.
The Brief Reign of Louis I
Louis I, son of Philip V and Maria Luisa of Savoy, ascended the throne when his father abdicated in January 1724. However, his reign lasted only 229 days before his death from smallpox in August 1724. During his short rule, his stepmother, Elisabeth Farnese, kept him away from significant state affairs, limiting his impact.
Fernando VI: Modernization Efforts
Fernando VI (reigned 1746-1759), advised chiefly by the capable Marquis de la Ensenada, sought to strengthen the Absolute Monarchy through economic growth and modernization. A primary goal was to enhance and secure Spain’s colonial trade. This necessitated strengthening the Navy and maintaining a period of peace, breaking from the more interventionist foreign policy of Philip V’s later years.
Ensenada’s Reforms
Key reforms under Ensenada included:
- A major tax reform project, the Catastro de Ensenada, which aimed to create a single, unified tax based on wealth, including that of the privileged classes, although it faced significant opposition and was never fully implemented nationwide.
- Measures to increase state revenues.
- Elimination of internal tariffs on grain to facilitate domestic trade.
- Steps towards liberalizing colonial trade.