Al-Andalus: History and Culture
BLOCK 3: Al-Andalus
3.1 Political Developments: Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Cordoba
The conquest of Al-Andalus was driven by the rapid expansion of Islam and the internal crisis of the Visigoth monarchy. The Arab governor, Musa ibn-Nusair, sent an expedition led by his Berber lieutenant, Tariq, to aid the Witizans who were at war against the supporters of Don Rodrigo. Tariq defeated Don Rodrigo at the Battle of Guadalete. Musa and Syrian Arab warriors joined Tariq in Toledo and conquered the entire peninsula (except for the northern mountainous areas). Their advance was halted at Poitiers by Charles Martel of the Franks.
The rapid conquest can be explained by the weakness of the Visigoths and the Muslims’ desire for plunder and to spread their faith (holy war). There was little resistance from the population, with many converting to Islam (Muladies). The Muslims were tolerant of Jews and Christians (Dhimmis).
This stage, known as the Dependent Emirate of Damascus, was characterized by struggles between Arabs and Berbers.
When the Umayyads were massacred by the Abbasids in Damascus, one Umayyad, Abderrahman I, fled and was proclaimed Emir in Al-Andalus, creating the Independent Emirate of Cordoba. This period was marked by riots and tensions between Mozarabic Christians and other Christians.
The Emirate reached its peak under Abderrahman II. New cities were created, and commercial activity intensified. Abderrahman II’s death coincided with an economic crisis and increased activity from the Christian kingdoms in the north. This led to a political crisis, with the Muladis still dissatisfied with the hegemony of the Arabs and Berbers.
Abderrahman III proclaimed himself Caliph and broke away from Baghdad. This established the political and religious independence of Al-Andalus, creating the Caliphate of Cordoba. Its wealth was based on three pillars: tributes from subjects, parias (taxes charged to Christian kingdoms), and control of gold mines in North Africa. The army was composed of Berber and Slavic mercenaries.
Abderrahman III brought peace to Al-Andalus. After his death, his son, Al-Hakam II, maintained peace with the Christians. Upon his death, power went to Almanzor, a hajib who supplanted the Caliph and launched numerous military campaigns against the Christians. Upon his death, the Caliphate disintegrated, and the Taifa Kingdoms emerged.
3.3 Economic and Social Organization
In contrast to the rural, less productive, and subsistence-based agriculture of the northern Christian kingdoms, the Islamic world had a high degree of urbanization and market-oriented agriculture. The economic base of Al-Andalus was agriculture, livestock, crafts, and trade.
In agriculture, estates cultivated through sharecropping contracts were prominent. Crops were based on the Mediterranean trilogy (wheat, vines, and olives). In more fertile areas, irrigation was developed using ditches and norias.
Sheep farming was the most important livestock activity, dedicated to the production of meat and milk. Horse breeding was also important for transportation and war.
Handicrafts were known for luxury goods (gold, silver, and precious stones). There was craft specialization, and trade reached considerable importance. Factors that promoted its development included the consolidation of an extensive urban network and an effective system of communications and transport. Domestic trade was conducted in souks. International trade was intense, with two currencies: the dirham (silver) and the dinar (gold). Luxury goods were exported, and agricultural products, raw materials, weapons, and slaves were imported.
Social organization was heterogeneous. There were three main groups:
- Muslims: Divided into four subgroups: Arabs, Syrians, Berbers, and Muladi. The Arabs constituted an aristocracy. The Syrians fought in the Berber revolt of 740 for possession of land. The Berbers became a powerful group with prominence in the army. The Muladi were Christians who converted to Islam for economic and social prestige.
- Mozarabic Christians: Lived in Muslim territory and were influenced by Islamic culture and customs. Many fled to the north due to persecution by the Almoravids and Almohads.
- Jews: An important minority. Many knew Arabic language and culture. They excelled in business and professions like doctors, merchants, and goldsmiths. There was a significant number of slaves who converted to Islam to gain freedom.
3.4 Cultural Legacy of Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus reached its cultural peak in the 10th century (Caliphate of Cordoba). Mathematical sciences, astronomy, botany, medicine, history, and literature, especially poetry, flourished.
The Taifa Kingdoms were the golden age of Andalusian culture. The court of Seville was famous for its poets, but the most important was Ibn Hazm of Cordoba, who wrote “The Ring of the Dove,” a major treatise on love.
The Almoravid and Almohad invasions led to the exile of many intellectuals (Avempace, Averroes, Maimonides). Mozarabic Christians and Jews played an important role in the transition from classical to Andalusian culture, translating classical works into Arabic. Toledo was the most important city in this regard. Additionally, some Jews and Christians who knew Arabic and Latin recovered classical works unknown in the West and exported them to other countries.