Al-Andalus: History, Culture, and Art of Islamic Iberia
1. Introduction
During the 5th century, with the fall of the Roman Empire, the Visigoths entered the Iberian Peninsula and established their capital in Toledo. Their empire flourished between the 6th and 7th centuries. However, power struggles weakened the monarchy, making the peninsula vulnerable to the Muslim expansion led by the Umayyad dynasty in 711. The Muslim-controlled territory became known as Al-Andalus.
2. Al-Andalus
In 711, Muslims crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, winning the Battle of Guadalete and swiftly capturing Toledo. (Information on pacts between nobles and Muslims is needed here.) Within three years, they controlled most of the peninsula, excluding the Cantabrian Zone and Pyrenees, where the Christian kingdoms persisted.
Initially, Al-Andalus was an emirate under Damascus. With the Abbasid takeover, it gained political autonomy in 756, though remaining religiously dependent. Full independence arrived in 929 with the establishment of the Caliphate of Cordoba, a period of significant cultural and economic prosperity.
In 1031, internal conflicts fragmented the Caliphate into the Taifa kingdoms, with Seville gaining prominence. The Christian kingdoms in the north began reclaiming territory, eventually leaving only the Muslim kingdom of Granada, which survived from 1232 until its conquest by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492.
3. Economy, Politics, and Society
Economy
Al-Andalus implemented advanced agricultural techniques and irrigation systems, including the water wheel, boosting the production of rice, oranges, saffron, and other crops. It became a hub for trade routes, importing raw materials and cheap labor, leading to the development of manufacturing industries in cities, producing paper, leather, and ceramics. Trade also facilitated the spread of their gold dinar and silver dirham currencies.
Politics
Islam’s theocratic structure, with the Caliph as the supreme political and religious leader, was largely mirrored in Al-Andalus. Under Emirate rule, the Emir held the highest authority. Upon achieving full independence as a Caliphate, the Caliph became the supreme leader within the territory.
The empire was divided into koras or emirates (provinces) governed by Emirs, also known as walis. Other key positions included Viziers (ministers) and Qadis (judges).
Society
Cities served as centers of economic, administrative, political, and cultural activity. Both conquerors and the existing Hispanic population represented a mix of races and backgrounds:
- Conquerors: Primarily Berber tribes from North Africa, along with Arabs and Syrians.
- Hispanics:
- Muladi (Hispanics who converted to Islam)
- Mozarabes (Christians who maintained their religion, often facing persecution, many migrating north)
- Jews (primarily residing in towns and engaged in commerce)
4. Culture and Art
Culture
Arabs excelled in scientific and philosophical fields, inheriting knowledge from the Greeks. Their vast administrative system fostered expertise in law. They also made significant contributions to astronomy, botany, and medicine.
Arabs introduced decimal numbers, papermaking (though invented in China), and chess (believed to originate from India) to Europe.
Art
Islamic art in Al-Andalus is known as Andalusian or Hispano-Islamic art.
Architecture encompassed religious structures like mosques and secular buildings such as palaces, forts, and urban housing. Key architectural elements included the horseshoe arch, the lobed arch, and the ribbed vault. (See p. 99)
- Caliphate of Cordoba: Buildings typically featured horseshoe arches, exemplified by the Mosque of Cordoba (p. 93) and Medina Azahara (p. 100).
- Taifa Kingdoms: Construction materials were simpler, but decoration became richer, as seen in the citadel of Malaga (p. 101) and the Aljafería Palace of Zaragoza.
- Later Period: Defensive structures became more common due to ongoing conflicts with Christian kingdoms, such as the Alcázar of Seville and the Giralda (p. 101).
- Granada: The Alhambra (14th-15th centuries) features fortifications, palaces (including the Generalife), and courtyards like the Patio de los Leones (p. 95).
Due to Islamic prohibitions on depicting humans and animals, sculpture and painting were less prominent. However, decoration played a crucial role, particularly:
- Kufic script: Arabic calligraphy, often featuring verses from the Quran.
- Tracery: Interlocking geometric patterns.
- Plasterwork and arabesques: Stylized plant motifs with delicate stems and leaves.