Alfonso XIII’s Reign and Sociopolitical Tensions in Spain
Alfonso XIII’s Reign and the Challenges of Early 20th Century Spain
King Alfonso XIII was a significant figure in Spanish history. He began his reign at 16 years old and not only reigned but also governed. Convinced of the rightful political leadership of moderates and that the Constitution of 1876 granted it, he was at no time willing to give up shared sovereignty with the courts or their political prerogatives. Probably the main political fault of Alfonso XIII was his military spirit, which inclined him to favor the army whenever there was a conflict between the civil and military power.
Political Revisionism and Early Reforms
The twentieth century began with attempts to reform the political system of the Restoration. After the death of the founders of the two dynastic parties, Sagasta and Canovas, began the stage of political revisionism, led by Maura, from the Conservative Party, and Canalejas, from the Liberal Party. The first attempts at reform were led by Conservative governments, whose intention was to make the “revolution from above”, which aspired to a maximum of consolidation of political life, but without changing the foundations of the system. They conducted a labor law (Law on Working Conditions for Women and Children, Sunday Rest Law, and Strikes Law). They created the National Welfare Institute, which aimed to provide insurance known as “worker’s retirement”. Workers, in return for contributions during their active working life, could retire with a right to a small pension. However, the working and living conditions of workers were still very hard. They passed the Electoral Reform Act, which intended to eliminate fraud and ensure clean elections. To do this, among other things, it provided in Article 29 that the electoral seats for which only one candidate ran would be awarded directly without an electoral process. But the reality was that it provided further manipulation, as it was enough to prevent a rival candidate from filing, saving the gruesome practice on election day.
For their part, the Liberals held the enactment of laws with social content, such as the Conscription Act, which provided for compulsory military service and partly ended the practice of class substitution and redemption, or the Religious Congregations Act (commonly known as the Lock Law), which prohibited the establishment in Spain of new religious orders.
In conclusion, the reign began with a spirit of regeneration that tried to renew the political system, but not only did it fail, but just a decade after it began, its disorders started.
The Morocco Question
Following the International Conference of Algeciras (1906), Spain gained the ultimate recognition of their rights in the northern territory. The reasons for the Spanish presence in Morocco were:
- To retrieve national prestige after the 1898 losses.
- To not leave France as the only power in the area.
- To maintain the strategic balance in the Strait of Gibraltar.
- To ensure order in the Rif region (between Ceuta and Melilla), which was the scene of constant conflict between the Spanish troops and local tribes.
The Tragic Week in Barcelona (1909)
The issue of Morocco brought popular discontent because of the forced recruitment of troops for a war that only two minority social groups were interested in: a) a section of the army, who saw in it the chance to regain the prestige lost after the 1898 disaster, and b) the capitalists interested in the exploitation of iron mines in the Rif.
Until the establishment of compulsory military service in 1912, those individuals who had money could get rid of entry into military service by paying a fee too high for the economic possibilities of the lower classes, which explains the popular anti-militarism.
The mobilization of reservists intensified the climate of social tension: a general strike was prepared, called by socialists and anarchists. In Barcelona, the port where the troops were on board, strikes and demonstrations took place. The military authorities declared a state of war, sparking a wave of street violence for nearly a week, known as the Tragic Week. The population reacted by setting up barricades in the streets and burning churches and convents (because of anti-clericalism, and they identified the Church with ideological repression at the power and capitalism, and the greater vulnerability of religious buildings in comparison to military facilities or buildings). A harsh crackdown was launched: more than a thousand arrests, and seventeen death sentences, including that of Ferrer Guardia, anarchist and founder of the Modern School. This execution raised a wave of international protest that led to the resignation of the President of the Government, the conservative Maura. Moreover, the anarchist union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) was founded, which, unlike the socialist General Union of Workers (UGT), considered the general strike as the most effective tool of struggle.
The General Crisis of 1917
Military juntas of Defense were assemblies of infantry officers to defend the interests of its members. Its creation was due to discomfort caused by two corporate issues:
- The loss of purchasing power of their salaries.
- The patronage of the Ministry of War in its promotion policy, advocating the promotion of military officers in Morocco.
In April, the Chief Executive, the liberal Romanones, resigned due to the inability to dissolve the Juntas. On June 1st, the military rebellion began with the submission to the Government of the Manifesto of the Juntas. The support of Alfonso XIII for these claims was crucial, and the new government finally recognized them.
The Parliamentary Assembly
The Regionalist League, led by Cambo, wanted to do away with the outdated and cacique political system of the Restoration. In anticipation that the government would not heed this call, all Spanish parliamentarians were invited to a new meeting. In this second call, known as the Parliamentary Assembly, the agreements of the previous meeting were ratified in a motion signed by Catalan nationalists, republicans, and socialists. But in this case, the government simply declared such claims unconstitutional. The movement broke up due to the refusal of the military juntas of Defense to work with Catalanists, Republicans, and Socialists, with whom the army had little sympathy, and the differences and distrust among the assembly members themselves.
The General Strike of 1917
A general strike was called earlier than expected, since a rail strike in Valencia precipitated events. It was developed in Madrid, Barcelona, Zaragoza, and other cities. The Government’s response was to arrest the strike committee and draw the troops into the streets. The strike ended with a balance of more than seventy killed and around two thousand prisoners. Members of the strike committee were subject to court-martial, and several of them were sentenced to life imprisonment.
Military Failure in Morocco: The Annual Disaster (1921)
The agreement between Spain and France in 1912 had turned the catchment areas of both countries into a shared Protectorate in Morocco. The Spanish protectorate, located in the north, covered an area much smaller and poorer than the French. In addition, control of these territories had more disadvantages than advantages:
- It was a very mountainous area (Rif chain).
- The roads were scarce and difficult.
- The economic wealth of the area was limited to the iron mines in the mountains of the Rif.
- The hostility of the Rif tribes, reluctant to give up their independence and accept a single command.
To this was added the unpopularity of the war and the army itself, split between the African sectors that could benefit from war merit promotions, and the “juntista” industry, which coincided with the military juntas of Defense in the rejection of the promotion system. To complicate everything, in July 1921, the commander of Melilla, General Fernández Silvestre, whose military errors had a tragic outcome, caused unintended consequences. From Melilla, he launched a campaign to reach Alhucemas and submit the most dangerous Rif tribe, but his recklessness and tactical errors, in contrast to the effective performance of the Rif leader Abd-el-Krim, led to the defeat of Annual, triggering an authentic military disaster: the virtual destruction of all the forces of the command, with more than 13,000 casualties and grave danger even for the square of Melilla. The Annual disaster had an effect on public opinion similar to that of 1898 and precipitated the downfall of the government. Socialists and Republicans squandered an opportunity to attack the regime. Finally, a commission was formed to clarify the accusations against the king, politicians, and the army, whose report (Report Picasso) would not reach the courts, because a few days before its presentation, General Primo de Rivera staged a coup d’état, initiating the stage of the dictatorship.