Alfonso XII’s Reign and the Restoration in Spain
Reign of Alfonso XII
Alfonso XII’s reign began after the pronouncement of Martínez Campos and Cánovas, following negotiations for Isabella II to abdicate in favor of her son. Alfonso XII entered Spain in 1874 to rule under a model of parliamentary monarchy. This marked the beginning of a new political system, the Cánovas system. This system aimed for stability, as previous models had failed, and economic modernization. However, the ultimate consequences were intolerance, social injustice, and political corruption, which came to light in 1898 following the loss of the last colonies.
Thus began the Restoration, a model that sought to break and destroy any remnant of the old regime in the country. To accommodate this new system of political *turnismo*, a new constitution was promulgated in 1876. It was very open, flexible, and short, allowing each party in power to interpret and develop the law in their own way. It did not specify the type of sovereignty, voting system, or citizenship rights.
The Cánovas System and Political *Turnismo*
The model devised by Cánovas del Castillo entailed a false democracy, a monarchy controlled by the high oligarchies, the stars of the moment. The system was inspired by the English two-party system and consisted of two parties: Conservative, led by Cánovas, and Liberal, led by Sagasta. These parties peacefully alternated in power. Although universal male suffrage was achieved in the country from 1890, the system consisted of a sham election.
Prior to the elections, the *encasillado* process decided the number of seats each party would have. The only thing left was to achieve, through chiefs or rigging, the agreed-upon election results. Thus, the vote was directly controlled to ensure party alternation, which continued even after the death of Alfonso XII, during the regency of his wife, Maria Cristina of Habsburg. Cánovas resigned in 1885 and handed power to Sagasta, who performed the “ruling over” until 1890.
Opposition Forces
Sagasta achieved some important reforms, but this period was mainly characterized by the emergence of forces opposing the system’s timid reforms. These included:
- Socialist Forces: In 1881, the “Spanish Federation of Workers in the Iberian Region” was created, and in 1890, an anarchist labor union was established, which would be integrated into the CNT in 1910. Anarchism gained considerable traction in Spain, especially in the countryside and among the Catalan proletariat.
- Socialism: In the late 1870s, socialism spread under Pablo Iglesias, leading to the establishment of the PSOE and the UGT, their union. In 1890, they began participating in parliament, obtaining their first seat in 1910.
- Intellectual Opposition: Intellectuals attacked the system’s corruption and judged the model as an obstacle to modernization, progress, and Europeanization.
- Regional and Nationalist Forces: Arising from Romanticism, these forces became protagonists of the moment.
- Catalan Nationalism: The Catalan *Renaixença* movement, initially a cultural movement, evolved into political nationalism in Catalonia in the 1880s. Catalans felt Spanish but criticized the *cacique* system and called for greater autonomy and economic protectionism.
- Basque Nationalism: This was a reaction to the centralist policy of Alfonso XII, which limited Basque privileges. The PNV was created in 1895 with clearly independentist, radical, and anti-Spanish features.
- Galician and Valencian Nationalisms: These also emerged, but to a lesser extent.
Colonial Tensions and the Loss of Colonies
During the reign of Alfonso XII, tensions and resistance surfaced in the Spanish colonies. The causes of the independence movements that led to the loss of these last colonies were various:
- Intolerance and political centralization.
- Lack of action by the government after the Zanjón Agreement.
- U.S. interests in Cuba at the time of imperialism and expansion.
The Spanish response to the outbreak of revolution in Cuba and the Philippines triggered a new, cruel, and unjust war. The U.S. joined in favor of the colonies, causing the surrender of the Spanish army in Santiago de Cuba. In 1898, peace was signed in Paris, in which Spain ceded Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.