Amadeo I & the Tumultuous First Spanish Republic (1870-1874)
Reign of Amadeo I
Amadeo was elected king through the efforts of Prim, who aimed to prevent the proclamation of a republic. However, on the very day the king landed in Cartagena, December 30, 1870, Prim died in Madrid, a victim of an attack. With his main supporter gone, Amadeo’s reign faced an uphill battle. The identity of Prim’s killer was never discovered.
Amadeo entered Madrid on January 2, 1871, swore allegiance to the constitution, and initiated Spain’s first experience with a democratic monarchy. He soon faced opposition from the military elite and aristocracy. The new king appointed Serrano to form a government, despite their mutual lack of understanding. A major political issue was the internal division within Amadeo’s supporting party, split between Unionists and Progressives, particularly the latter. This division reflected both personal differences and the growing bipartisan nature of Spanish politics. Within the Progressive faction, two trends emerged: a more conservative group led by Sagasta, known as Constitutionalists, who had the support of Serrano’s Unionists; and a more reformist group led by Ruiz Zorrilla, the Radicals, who aligned with the Democrats, a party divided between monarchists and republicans.
Amadeo initially appointed Ruiz Zorrilla to lead the government but replaced him in October with the more militarily-aligned Sagasta. Spain was also experiencing socio-political unrest fueled by the Paris Commune and the spread of First International principles. Fear of proletarian revolution led Sagasta to adopt repressive measures against workers’ organizations. The increasingly radicalized Federal Republican opposition further destabilized the situation.
Adding to the turmoil were the outbreak of the Carlist rebellion and the ongoing war in Cuba (1868). Military unrest escalated with the appointment of General Hill as Captain General of the Basque region. Artillery officers protested, citing Hill’s participation in the repression of the San Gil artillery barracks in 1866. They demanded a collective resignation from service. The government and courts, determined to assert civilian control over the military, accepted the officers’ resignations. This new conflict exhausted the king’s patience. Refusing to sign the decree reorganizing the artillery, despite congressional support, he abdicated on February 10, 1873. The results of his reign were stark: six cabinets, three parliamentary elections, and the failure of middle-class democracy. On February 11, 1873, the Congress and Senate jointly assumed power and proclaimed the First Republic (258 votes in favor, 32 against).
Carlism was divided into two ideological factions: one openly identified with General Cabrera, accused of unorthodoxy and association with Freemasons; and another, more orthodox group, led by Charles VII and Candido Nocedal. The Third Carlist War began in April 1872, three days after the opening of the courts. An initial failed uprising led to a temporary halt in the war. However, the Carlists reorganized after the defeat of Oroquieta and renewed hostilities in December 1872. The war became widespread in 1873, with the most significant event being the siege of Bilbao, won by Liberal troops. Three factors fueled the persistent Carlist conflicts throughout the 19th century: resistance from the peasantry, resistance from provincial territories, and resistance to secularization. Centralization efforts undermined the Basque provincial system, paving the way for the transformation of traditional fuerismo into a Catholic, ethnically-based nationalism and xenophobia during the Restoration period.
The conflict between federal and unitary, or radical, ideologies defined the brief history of Spain’s First Republic. This period lasted less than a year, from February 11, 1873, to January 3, 1874, when General Pavia’s coup overthrew the republican government. This tumultuous period saw: four presidents (Figueras, Pi i Maragall, Salmerón, and Castelar), six governments, intense social upheaval, two Carlist wars, the Cantonal Revolution, and the Cuban Revolution. Attempts to establish a new state model faced numerous challenges: the questionable legitimacy of the Republic’s origin, proclaimed in a joint session of both chambers acting as a constituent assembly, which prevented the immediate adoption of a constitution; and the difficulty of reconciling the diverse political currents and projects, with Radicals defending a unitary state and various factions advocating for different forms of federalism. Figueras was the first president of the executive, leading a government composed of five ministers and symbolic figures of radical republicanism. The 1869 constitution remained in effect, with only articles related to the monarchy removed. Elections for a constituent assembly were held in May 1873. With a Federal Republican majority, the Constituent Assembly began its sessions on June 1 and proclaimed a federal democratic republic. Pi i Maragall replaced Figueras, attempting to reconcile the various Republican factions with a program of order and governance. However, he faced insurmountable problems, including two wars, an uncooperative army, and widespread opposition to the Republic. The rise of Cantonalism disrupted Pi’s plans, and the government’s inability to suppress the cantonal uprisings led to a crisis. Salmerón replaced Pi, pledging to restore order and implement pending social reforms.
Cantonalism was based on principles of direct democracy, municipal and provincial autonomy, the abolition of consumption taxes and military conscription, land redistribution, and a diffuse anti-clericalism, defending the interests of the middle and lower classes. Importantly, it did not fundamentally question the unity of Spain, despite the appearance of dividing the state into separate cantons. The Cantonal movement divided Republicans into supporters, compromisers, and those advocating for repression.
Emilio Castelar, appointed president in September, advocated for a centralized republic, relying on reservists to end the Cantonal uprising and continue the ongoing wars. He also believed in the separation of church and state. General Pavia, Captain General of Madrid, prepared a coup with Castelar’s tacit support. However, after Castelar lost a vote of confidence in the parliament, he resigned. From January to December 1874, a system known as the Unitary Republic, or the dictatorship of General Serrano, was established, with Serrano presiding over both the government and the executive. This system operated without a constitution. The governments of 1874 acted with the understanding that their rule was provisional and aimed to restore institutional normalcy. This provisional period facilitated preparations for the return of Isabel II’s son, Alfonso. On September 3, Sagasta replaced General Zavala as head of the government, while General Martínez Campos prepared a pronunciamiento, without the support of Canovas. Canovas desired a restoration of the monarchy through civil means, avoiding a military intervention. Martínez Campos left Madrid on December 26, marched to Sagunto, and after communicating his plans, Canovas addressed the troops on December 29, proclaiming Alfonso XII the new king of Spain. Serrano’s swift fall from power forced him into exile in France. On the last day of the year, Canovas inaugurated a new regency ministry, marking the beginning of a new era.