American & French Revolutions: A Comparative History
The American Revolution
Origins of Conflict
In the 18th century, Great Britain controlled thirteen colonies in eastern North America. The American Revolution arose from growing tensions between these colonies and the British crown. Great Britain sought raw materials from the colonies but stifled industrial development there. Political tensions escalated as well. The royal colonies operated under a colonial pact that granted settlers considerable autonomy. While colonists were expected to pay taxes to Great Britain, they often evaded them. This led to the tax disputes of the 1770s.
In 1773, the British government enacted the Tea Act, aiming to monopolize the tea trade and potentially ruin American merchants. Colonists, disguised as Indigenous people, protested by dumping tea from British ships into Boston Harbor during the Boston Tea Party. In response, Britain closed the port of Boston and revoked Massachusetts’s charter rights.
The War of Independence
In 1774, representatives from the thirteen colonies convened the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, drafting a bill of rights. The British defeat at Lexington further fueled the insurrection. Thomas Jefferson penned the Virginia Declaration of Rights, outlining principles of national sovereignty, separation of powers, and suffrage, which served as a foundation for the United States Declaration of Independence. The colonists received crucial military support from France and Spain. Key victories at Saratoga and Yorktown led to the Treaty of Paris in 1783, where Britain formally recognized American independence.
The Legacy
The Constitution of 1787 established the new political order, creating a federal structure. George Washington became the first president, leading the executive branch, elected every four years through indirect suffrage. The legislature, composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate, was also elected by the people. The judicial branch, headed by the Supreme Court, ensured laws and government actions adhered to the Constitution.
The French Revolution
France Before the Revolution
By early 1789, France, despite being a major power, faced deep-seated problems. A stratified society persisted, and an economic crisis, ongoing since 1780, worsened. The cost of supporting the American Revolution further strained French finances. A political crisis also brewed, as King Louis XVI lost popular support.
The Meeting of the Estates-General
Between 1783 and 1788, Louis XVI’s finance ministers attempted to address the economic crisis but ultimately concluded that fundamental reforms were needed, requiring the privileged classes to pay taxes. The king tried to persuade the privileged classes but failed. As a last resort, he convened the Estates-General in 1787. Before the meeting, each estate prepared lists of grievances (cahiers de doléances). The bourgeoisie formed political clubs, such as the Jacobin Club, to discuss new political ideas and strategies for gaining power. They also established newspapers to disseminate their views.
The Beginning of the Revolution
The nobility and clergy favored voting by estate, which would give them a majority. The Third Estate advocated for voting by head, which would give them the advantage. In June 1789, representatives of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly. The king and the privileged classes attempted to lock them out of their meeting hall, but the deputies gathered at a nearby tennis court (the Tennis Court Oath), vowing to remain assembled until a constitution was drafted. The National Assembly thus became the National Constituent Assembly. On July 14, 1789, amid rising bread prices and rumors of royal troops amassing in Paris, Parisians stormed the Bastille.
The Work of the Constituent Assembly
On August 4, 1789, the Assembly abolished feudal rights, eliminating the special legal privileges of the nobility and clergy and opening access to public office to all. On August 26, they adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, guaranteeing personal freedoms, equality before the law, and property rights. The Constitution of 1791 established a constitutional monarchy with a separation of powers among the legislative National Assembly, the executive King and the judiciary.
The Legislative Assembly and Opposition to Reform
The Constitution of 1791 represented a victory for the wealthy but dissatisfied the common people. The king and many of the privileged classes also resented the loss of their sovereignty and privileges. Many nobles emigrated and plotted against the new government from abroad. Following elections, the new Legislative Assembly was dominated by moderates.