American & French Revolutions, Napoleonic Era, and Spanish War of Independence
1. American Independence
After a series of protests, the American War of Independence broke out in 1775 between the thirteen colonies and Great Britain. In 1776, representatives of the thirteen colonies signed the Declaration of Independence. The American War of Independence ended in 1783 when Great Britain accepted American independence and signed the Treaty of Paris. In 1787, the United States Constitution established the federal government, with George Washington as the first president.
2. The French Revolution (1789-1799)
The Origins and Outbreak of Revolution
In the late 18th century, the French bourgeoisie, influenced by Enlightenment ideals and the American Revolution, sought social and political change. Meanwhile, the peasantry opposed heavy feudal taxes. Two major crises triggered the revolution: an economic crisis (due to poor harvests and rising food prices) and a financial crisis (due to a budget deficit). The need to approve new taxes led King Louis XVI to convene the Estates-General. The representatives of the Third Estate formed the National Assembly to draft a constitution. This period culminated in the storming of the Bastille by the people of Paris.
Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
The Constituent Assembly aimed to abolish the Ancien Régime. It approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and enacted a Constitution in 1791.
The French Republic (1792-1794)
The Girondins (moderate bourgeoisie) clashed with the Jacobins (the more radical sector of the bourgeoisie), who were supported by the sans-culottes. Louis XVI was executed, and a new Constitution was approved in 1793. Robespierre, a Jacobin leader, initiated the Reign of Terror, which lasted until his execution in 1794.
From the Directory to the Consulate (1794-1799)
The moderate bourgeoisie regained control and issued a new Constitution in 1795. The Directory faced opposition from both monarchists and Jacobins. Political instability led to Napoleon Bonaparte staging a coup in 1799.
3. The Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon, supported by the moderate bourgeoisie, proclaimed himself consul. He implemented an authoritarian constitution (without separation of powers), approved the Civil Code (also known as the Napoleonic Code), and created the lycées (state-funded secondary schools). In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself emperor. He occupied several European nations, installing family members or army generals as rulers. By 1812, much of Europe was under French control. However, after the failed invasion of Russia and his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled.
4. Consequences of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire
The French Revolution laid the groundwork for modern democracy and political systems, establishing concepts such as national sovereignty, separation of powers, citizen rights, constitutional law, independent judiciary, and state organization into departments and city councils. It also led to the development of political parties (left and right). The era saw agrarian reform, the implementation of free trade, the abolition of internal customs, and the creation of the metric system. Education became compulsory, with the establishment of state schools, and the state adopted a secular approach to religion.
5. Spain (1788-1814)
The Reign of Charles IV and the Road to War
Spain initially declared war on France in support of Louis XVI. However, the French Republic forced Spain to sign the Peace of Basel in 1795. Under the leadership of Manuel Godoy, Spain formed an alliance with France through the Treaties of San Ildefonso (1796 and 1799). The Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) allowed French troops to cross Spain to invade Portugal. Public protests against the presence of French troops (Revolt of Aranjuez) forced Charles IV to abdicate.
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
Napoleon compelled Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to cede the Spanish throne to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte (Abdications of Bayonne). A failed uprising against French troops in Madrid on May 2, 1808, marked the beginning of the Spanish War of Independence. Local and provincial defense councils (Juntas de Defensa) were formed, employing guerrilla warfare as a key tactic. The Central Council (Junta Suprema Central) allied with Great Britain. The war concluded with the Treaty of Valençay in 1813, and Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne in 1814. The Central Council was replaced by the Regency Council, which convened the Cádiz Cortes. The 1812 Cádiz Constitution established a constitutional monarchy, separation of powers, universal male suffrage, and protection of fundamental rights and freedoms.