American Independence and the French Revolutionary Era
US Independence: Causes and Establishment
Reasons for Independence
- Many English colonists who settled in the Thirteen Colonies spread Enlightenment ideas, such as political representation and separation of powers.
- Conflict arose when Britain established new taxes that the colonists refused to pay.
- Tensions escalated, leading to the outbreak of war (following events like the Boston Tea Party in 1773).
Key Events and Outcomes
- On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies was proclaimed, outlining Enlightenment principles.
- Peace was signed in 1783, with Britain recognizing independence. The new country was named the United States of America, and George Washington became its first president.
The US Constitution
The Constitution was approved in 1787. It established popular sovereignty and the division of powers: legislative (Congress), judicial (Supreme Court), and executive (President).
The political system adopted was a Federal Republic, a system in which individual states have autonomy to govern themselves but share a common foreign policy, army, and Constitution.
Causes of the French Revolution
Economic Factors
- A financial crisis persisted from 1760 due to heavy debt, caused by the Seven Years’ War and aid provided to the settlers in North America.
- Poor harvests in 1788-1789 raised bread prices to levels unaffordable for the most humble, provoking strong riots.
Social Factors
The ministers of Louis XVI wanted to raise taxes, extending them to the privileged classes (nobility and clergy). They refused and foiled any attempt at social reform.
The bourgeoisie desired political power and used the peasantry to help achieve it.
Political-Ideological Factors
There was a widespread desire to overthrow the Ancien Régime (Old Regime), based on Enlightenment ideas.
Phases of the French Revolution
Given the need for fiscal reform, King Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates-General in 1789 to seek approval for new taxes.
The Revolution took place in several phases:
Phase 1: National Assembly and Uprisings (1789)
The Third Estate left the Estates-General and established itself as the National Assembly intending to give France a constitution.
A key event was the storming of the Bastille (a political prison).
Phase 2: Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)
Its aim was to develop a constitution. During this stage, dominated by the Girondins, feudal privileges were abolished, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was drafted.
A Constitution was adopted in 1791, which stated that the sovereignty of the nation resided in the people, the monarchy became constitutional, and it put an end to absolutism.
France declared war on Austria and Prussia.
Phase 3: French Republic and War (1792-1795)
The new assembly, called the National Convention, abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the Republic in 1792.
In 1793, the King and Queen were executed for treason. This year, a new democratic Constitution was adopted, marking the beginning of the triumph of the Jacobins, supported by the sans-culottes.
The regime became a dictatorship where anyone opposing it was executed. This stage is known as the Reign of Terror.
Phase 4: Directory and Rise of Napoleon (1795-1799)
The Thermidorian Reaction led to a new government (emerging from the coup d’état of Thermidor), which promulgated a new Constitution in 1795.
The Thermidorian Convention was replaced by the Directory.
Napoleon Bonaparte used the prestige gained from his military victories in Europe and assisted in the Coup d’état of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799).
Three Consuls seized power, with Napoleon as the principal First Consul.
The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815)
Napoleon went from First Consul to Consul for Life, and in 1804, he was crowned Emperor. His principal support was the army.
Domestic Policy
- Developed the Napoleonic Code (Civil Code), ensuring individual freedom, private property rights, and equality before the law.
- Education was reformed.