America’s Discovery, Conquest, and Colonial Administration
The Discovery of America
The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 was one of the most important events in European history and shaped the political, social, and economic landscape for centuries. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, presented his plan to reach India by sailing west, first to Portugal and then to Castile. After tough negotiations, the Capitulations of Santa Fe were signed in 1492 between the Catholic Monarchs (RRCC) and Columbus, granting him titles and benefits and securing support for the project. On August 3, 1492, the expedition of three ships commanded by Columbus left the port of Palos de la Frontera (Huelva). On October 12, they reached Guanahani (Bahamas). For a long time, Columbus continued to believe that he had reached some islands off the coast of Asia, but in reality, he had encountered a continent unknown to Europe: America. Columbus would make another three voyages between 1493 and 1503. The Catholic Monarchs asserted their sovereignty over the discovered lands to the Pope, but disagreements with Portugal led to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the areas of expansion and navigation. Thus, the west coast of Africa and Brazil remained in Portuguese hands, while the rest of America fell under Castilian control.
Conquest and Colonization of America
By 1518, the initial exploration phase was completed. However, the discovered land did not offer enough wealth, so two alternatives were pursued to justify exploitation: the search for a new passage to the Indies and expansion across the continent. The first endeavor resulted in the completion of the first circumnavigation of the world (Magellan and Elcano) between 1519 and 1522, but the route was deemed impractical. From 1519 onward, expeditions were launched to extend the conquest throughout the Americas. Hernán Cortés led the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico, and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire in Peru between 1531 and 1542.
By 1540, the expansion across the continent had ended. Settlers systematically exploited mineral resources, nearly exhausting them, and developed agriculture on the fertile American land. However, the economic gains contrasted sharply with the negative impact on the indigenous population. This unjust abuse sparked a heated debate in Spain and led to reports that resulted in the adoption of the Laws of Burgos in 1512, proclaiming the freedom and rights of the Indians.
Government and Administration in America
To organize and manage the wealth found, the state sought to directly control the new territory. The House of Trade of Seville (1503) was created as a specific body for American affairs. Its duties included preparing ships, controlling immigration, running a pilot school, mapping, storing goods, and collecting the royal fifth tax. In 1524, Charles I established the Council of the Indies to develop all laws and orders relating to America. Later, the Bourbons created the Ministry of the Navy and the Indies, which took over all administrative functions.
From 1535, America was divided into two Viceroyalties: New Spain, with its capital in Mexico City, and Peru, based in Lima. Later, the Viceroyalties of New Granada and Río de la Plata were created, completing the colonial map. Viceroys were the highest authority and enjoyed considerable autonomy. Below them were the Audiencias (courts), administrative bodies, and the provinces, led by governors or captains-general in hazardous areas. The Bourbons introduced the figure of the intendant, a royal official who took over many of the functions of existing government institutions. Locally, the settlers were organized in cities with councils. The black population was small in the early 16th century, but due to the shortage of workers, they were employed on plantations and in domestic service, growing in number as the years went by.