An Exploration of Moral Values, Rules, and Ethical Theories
a) Moral Values
There are different kinds of values (economic, aesthetic, religious, moral). All are characterized by:
- They are special qualities that we assign to objects, people, or actions.
- Only humans are able to assess these qualities.
We can say that we are facing moral values when:
- They should necessarily be appreciated and respected.
- They are universal, that is, they are valid for all individuals without exception.
- We appreciate them by themselves, not because they could provide us some selfish benefit, or because we are conditioned by social, economic, or political interests.
Therefore, moral values are those human qualities or ideals that we appreciate by themselves and aspire to be universal.
b) Moral Rules
Moral rules are behavioral patterns, habits, or norms that aim at regulating the coexistence of people in society. Generally, they are expressed in the form of orders or imperatives that compel us to behave in a certain way, and they have their origin in a series of moral values.
Ethical Theories
a) Socrates’ Moral Intellectualism
Socrates conceived humans as beings provided with a soul able to think and reason. This capacity is what most essentially defines humans. He concluded that excellence or areté in human beings consists in reason. Socrates ended by identifying areté in humans with knowledge and wisdom. The conclusion of the Socratic moral theory is that knowledge of what is good and right determines us to act in a good and right way. Who acts in a wrong way does it because of their ignorance, because they ignore what is “good”. According to Socrates, knowledge is a condition to act honestly. This connection between virtue and knowledge is the most characteristic feature of the Socratic conception of morality. Socratic moral theory is commonly known as “moral intellectualism”.
b) Sophists’ Moral Relativism
Based on the belief that it is not possible to determine, neither naturally nor rationally, in a way that would be acceptable to all beings, what is morally right. According to Sophists’ moral relativism, rules and moral precepts governing relations between individuals within a community are mere conventions or agreements lacking universal validity. A consequence of this doctrine is that no action can be considered “good” or “bad” in itself. Everything depends on the “appearance” or “opinion” of individual subjects who examine it. People judge depending on their way of life, their interests, or their projects.
c) Aristotle’s Eudaemonism
Based on the teleological conception of nature. All-natural beings tend to a purpose according to their nature. Everything that humans do, they do in order to achieve a purpose or goal. The ultimate goal of everything we do is happiness. All humans seek happiness through their actions. Happiness is the only purpose that is sufficient by itself. Happiness for humans consists in developing reason. The one who wants to be happy has to live in accordance with reason.
Virtue as the Desirable Middle Between Two Extremes: The Golden Mean
In order to develop a rational life, it is necessary to know how to manage our desires and passions in order to give them the “right” satisfaction. In its response to the demands of body and soul, our rational part has to find a balance between excess and defect. A human being is virtuous when their will has acquired the “habit” of acting “rightly”, that is, according to a “golden mean” that avoids both excess and defect. “Virtue” requires “prudence”. Without prudence, what we do will be doomed inevitably to “vice”.
d) Epicurus’ Hedonism
Epicurus said that happiness is the ultimate goal of life and that it can be understood as pleasure. The fundamental thesis of his ethical theory is that the purpose of human life is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. However, not all pleasures are equally desirable. So to know what kind of pleasures must be prioritized over the rest. To properly choose the pleasures, it is necessary to calculate between the advantages and disadvantages of different pleasures in order to achieve the maximum pleasure and the minimum pain. Epicurus believes that pleasures that are provided by the soul are superior to the pleasures provided by the body. He also states that the first to be satisfied must be the corporal pleasures, that is, physical pain must be removed before being able to enjoy other higher pleasures later.
e) David Hume’s Sentimentalism
David Hume is one of the representative philosophers of empiricism, which was characterized by prioritizing observation and sensitive experimentation against science. The study of morality changed the prevailing rationalist perspective and focused more on emotions, passions, and feelings as the foundation of moral life; therefore, we speak of “sentimentalism”. Moral approval, feeling good or bad when evaluating an action, are simply emotional experiences. “Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, but it can never direct our will by itself, that is, without the intervention of any passion.
f) Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory connected to Epicurus’ hedonism. It identifies “utility” with what gives us “pleasure”. They believe that the more pleasure an action generates for the greatest number of people, the better the action is. According to Jeremy Bentham, the good is what provides more pleasure to more people. Bentham believed that nature’s ethical judgment is based on pleasure and pain. Pleasure and pain are responsible for directing our behavior. Bentham concludes his “principle of utility,” according to which happiness consists in maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.