Ancient Athens: Rise of Democracy and the Golden Age
Ancient Athens: A History
The Cradle of Democracy
Founded on the Attica peninsula, Athens is renowned as the birthplace of democracy. Initially built around an acropolis (upper town), Athens experimented with various forms of government before establishing its democratic system.
Citizenship in Athens
Athenian society was structured into distinct classes:
- Politai (Citizens): Free men born in Attica and registered in a demos (district). Full citizenship was granted upon completion of military service at age 20. Only citizens held political rights, including land ownership.
- Metics (Foreign Residents): Free foreigners residing in Athens. They lacked citizenship rights and paid taxes, highlighting their lower status.
- Slaves: Primarily prisoners of war or their descendants. Considered property, slaves served both private individuals and the state.
From Monarchy to Written Law
Athenian governance evolved over centuries:
- Monarchy ruled until 1065 BC, when the eupatrids (nobles) overthrew the king.
- Aristocratic rule by Archons lasted for three centuries. In 685 BC, the Archons’ term was limited to one year, with nine Archons sharing power.
- Archon Draco codified Athenian law in 621 BC. Known for its severity, Draco’s code marked a significant step towards establishing written and publicly accessible law.
- In 594 BC, Solon, an orphaned Eupatrid, reformed the political system, sacrificing aristocratic privileges to address social inequalities. Solon’s reforms included granting equal social rights to all citizens, limiting individual land ownership, and dividing citizens into four classes based on wealth.
Solon’s Reforms and the Rise of Plutocracy
Solon’s reforms shifted Athens from an aristocracy to a democracy, with all citizens participating in the Assembly. However, the wealthiest citizens held the most important government positions, creating a plutocracy.
Athenian Institutions under Solon
- Archonship: Nine members annually elected by the people from the first-class citizens. They promulgated decrees and exercised executive power.
- Areopagus (Mars Hill): A court of justice addressing moral, educational, and religious matters. It judged corrupt officials and serious crimes.
- Boule (Council of Elders): Initially 400, later 500 members annually elected by the Assembly. The Boule prepared laws for the Assembly’s approval.
- Ecclesia (Assembly of the People): Composed of all citizens over 20 with recognized morality. The Assembly discussed and voted on laws, exercising legislative power and deciding matters of war and peace. It also judged generals after military campaigns.
The Tyranny of Pisistratus and Cleisthenes’ Reforms
Pisistratus, Solon’s cousin, seized power by uniting the third class and promising land redistribution. His sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, succeeded him but proved to be ineffective rulers and were overthrown.
Cleisthenes implemented democratic reforms in 510 BC, amending the Athenian constitution. He divided Attica into three zones (coast, mountain, plain), each subdivided into ten trittyes (districts). Ten tribes were formed, each comprising one trittys from each zone. Each tribe elected representatives to the polis, including buleutae (council members), Archons, strategoi (generals), and heliasts (jurors).
Fifth-Century Athens and the Golden Age of Pericles
Athens faced the Persian Empire in the Greco-Persian Wars. Following the Battle of Salamis, Athens’ power and wealth grew through trade. Under Pericles’ leadership (from 460 BC), Athens was rebuilt and beautified. Pericles’ focus on equality before the law contributed to this period being known as the Golden Age of Pericles.
Deepening Democracy: Reforms of Ephialtes and Pericles
The Areopagus was reformed, losing political power and opening its benches to all citizens. Public offices became salaried, ensuring broader participation. Democracy was further strengthened through measures like randomly selecting jurors, Assembly oversight of officials, and one-year terms for most offices.
The Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War
The Greco-Persian Wars arose from conflicts between Greek city-states and the Persian Empire over trade and the Ionian Revolt. The wars preserved Greek identity and influence, but also led to the rise of Athenian power, which aroused Spartan suspicion. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) between the Athenian-led Delian League and the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League marked the beginning of ancient Greece’s decline, furthered by the conquests of Philip II of Macedon.