Ancient Civilizations: A Comparative Study
Egypt
Location
This civilization developed between the deserts surrounding the fertile plain of the Nile.
Political Organization
The Pharaonic Egyptian state was ruled by the Pharaoh, who had absolute power over the people, animals, and land of Egypt. The Pharaoh was considered a god.
Economy
The economy was largely agrarian and based on the cultivation of cereals (wheat and barley) and fruit products.
Social Organization
The social structure was rigid and hierarchical:
- The Pharaoh and his family controlled everything that happened in the kingdom.
- For the administration of the empire, the Pharaoh had priests and senior civil and military administration.
Religion
The Egyptians believed in an afterlife, where they would be happy or miserable according to their behavior on earth. They believed they would be judged by the god Osiris and other deities.
Contributions
- Developed two types of writing: hieroglyphic and demotic.
- Made contributions in mathematics and engineering: they established numbering systems and formulas for measuring. They also built dams and canals.
- Created the 365-day calendar, which was adapted by the Romans.
- In architecture, they provided artificial interior lighting and the spine.
- Developed embalming techniques, demonstrating their knowledge of anatomy and physiology, as evidenced by the preservation of mummies.
Mesopotamia
Location
Mesopotamia is a floodplain whose name means “land between rivers.” Its fertility is due to the floods of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers that originate in the mountains of Armenia and flow into the Persian Gulf. This region corresponds to the state of Iraq today.
Political Organization
The government was a theocratic monarchy: the king was considered a representative of the divine, with absolute power over the whole territory. Administrative functions were performed by priests.
Economy
Mesopotamia developed active foreign trade, supplemented by farming and handicrafts.
Social Organization
Society was organized into several groups:
- The king and his family: Kings were representatives of the divine, high priests, and masters of the land. Aided by judges and governors, they controlled the land and water crops.
- Senior military leaders, priests, landowners, and merchants: Priests served the villages. Merchants formed an important social class.
- Artisans and peasants were mostly free.
- Slaves were usually prisoners of war.
Religion
This civilization had a warrior mentality and a pessimistic worldview. They did not believe in a better life in the hereafter or the permanence of things. Their religion was characterized by fear of the gods, and while they believed that the soul was immortal, they thought that the afterlife was a shadowy place. They did not believe that their conduct on earth would have consequences in the hereafter and were therefore attached to the mundane.
Contributions
- Developed astronomical knowledge. The inhabitants believed that the life of all persons depended on the astral position on the day of their birth. They created horoscopes and discovered the signs of the zodiac.
- In mathematics, the Mesopotamians left us multiplication, division, and the sexagesimal system, which is why the circle is divided into 360 degrees, the hour into 60 minutes, and the minute into 60 seconds.
- The Sumerians developed the first commercial contracts and the oldest codes of law. They created the check, bill of exchange, and promissory notes.
- Developed art and architecture, highlighting the tiered temples called ziggurats, which served as observatories. The Sumerians are also credited with the invention of the arch, the vault, and ramps, as well as raised walkways leading from one building to another.
India
Location
India is relatively isolated, with the ridge of the Himalayas to the north and the forests of the east.
Culture and Society
- Hinduism: Belief in the reincarnation of souls to be purified and eventually absorbed by the soul of the universe (Brahma).
- Buddhism: Preaches equality and suggests contemplation and asceticism to liberate oneself from desires, which are seen as the source of evil.
Contributions
- Monumental architecture
- The Sanskrit language
- Buddhist religion
- Mathematics (the numbers we use, algebra, and trigonometry)
- Invention of chess
China
Location
Developed in the North China Plain, beginning in the plain of the Yangtze River.
Culture and Society
Society was hierarchical, with members of the Imperial Family at the top, followed by the powerful class of mandarins, officials, and the military. Two important religious teachers were Lao-Tse and Confucius.
Contributions
- Manufacture of cotton, silk, paper, ink, and porcelain
- Invention of the compass, rudder, and seismograph
- Pagoda architecture
- Landscape painting
- Ancient acupuncture
Phoenicians
Location
Eastern Mediterranean, in the coastal regions of what is now Lebanon.
Political Organization
They were divided into independent city-states (Ugarit, Sidon, and Tyre). Tyre was famous for its commercial dominance between 1100 and 700 BCE.
Economy
They engaged in the exchange of goods with the natives (Palermo and Carthage) and developed industries such as purple dye production.
Contributions
- Navigation
- Metalworking
- Agriculture (olives, vines, and cereals)
- The alphabet (22 consonants)
Hebrews
Location
A Semitic people who traced their ancestry back to Abraham, they moved from Mesopotamia to Canaan (Palestine).
Political Organization
Abraham (through his grandson Jacob’s 12 sons) is a key figure. Moses later led them out of Egypt to the Promised Land (Palestine and the Jordan River valley) after a journey through Sinai. They defeated the Canaanites and Philistines but later suffered under the Assyrians and Babylonians. The Romans eventually expelled the Jews from their homeland.
Contributions
Judaism is a monotheistic religion that influenced the development of Christianity and Islam. They believed in the coming of a Messiah.