Ancient Civilizations and the Evolution of Humanity

Posted on Nov 13, 2024 in History

History and Related Disciplines

Definitions

History: Studies of past events relating to humans and human societies.

Ethnology: The study of human beings and their cultures.

Archaeology: The study of ancient monuments and past civilizations.

Paleolithic Period

The first period marked by cultural achievements of various social groups on Earth.

Castes: Social classes that divide a closed society.

History: From Graphic Testimony to Written Records

History begins when humans start leaving graphic testimonies of their ideas and creating stories.

Stages of History

  1. Prehistory: The period before written records.
  2. Ancient Age: Begins with the advent of writing (around the 5th century BC) and ends with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. This period saw the rise of theocratic and absolutist regimes, the empire of Alexander the Great, and the spread of Christianity.
  3. Middle Ages: Spans from the fall of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. This era witnessed the Catholic Church’s universalization, the prevalence of feudalism, and the rise of universities.
  4. Modern Age: Extends from the 15th to the 19th century, culminating in the French Revolution of 1789. This period saw the formulation of new mathematical and physical principles, a boom in natural and physical sciences.
  5. Contemporary Age: Begins with the French Revolution (1789) and continues to the present day. This era has witnessed world wars, the expansion of the labor movement, the rise of socialist ideas, and a massive advancement in technology.

Auxiliary Sciences of History

Disciplines that historians use to validate the authenticity and integrity of historical facts, relics, documents, and findings. These include geography, ethnology, and sociology.

Importance of History

History allows us to understand humanity and its evolution. It helps us avoid repeating past mistakes, comprehend our cultures and identities, learn from other eras, and understand how humans have been, are, and can be.

Prehistory

The study of this period relies heavily on fossil evidence.

Characteristics of Prehistoric Periods

  • No written records.
  • Nomadic lifestyle.
  • Division of labor by sex and age.
  • Organization into clans and tribes.

Prehistory is divided into the Stone Age and the Metal Age. The Stone Age is further divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods. The Metal Age comprises the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.

Theories Explaining Human Evolution

Evolutionary Theory: Proposed by Charles Darwin, it posits that natural selection drives evolutionary changes.

Creationist Theory: Based on the Bible, it holds that humans and the world were created by God.

The Near East

Definition and Peoples

The Near East encompasses a vast region in parts of Asia and northwestern Africa. It includes Egypt, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Phoenicia, and Iran.

Main Rivers

  • The Nile in Egypt.
  • The Euphrates and Tigris in Mesopotamia.

Egypt’s Main Contributions

  1. Mathematics and calculus.
  2. Monumental architecture, exemplified by the pyramids, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
  3. Cosmogony and religious morality.
  4. Papyrus (paper).

The Calendar

The Egyptians developed a calendar based on natural phenomena, such as the appearance of the star Sirius. It consisted of 12 months, each with 30 days, totaling 365 days. They added 5 extra days every year and had leap years. A year was divided into 3 seasons: inundation, planting, and harvest.

Mesopotamia’s Contributions

Mesopotamians invented the multiplication table, divided the circumference into 360 degrees, and built ziggurats (temple towers).

The Code of Hammurabi

A set of laws established by King Hammurabi to regulate society. It was divided into three areas:

  1. Status: Defined family and social structures, including marriage contracts, adoption, and bigamy.
  2. Criminal: Addressed crimes and punishments, including theft, murder, and adultery.
  3. Commercial: Regulated property ownership, contracts, buying and selling, and taxes.

Palestine

Initially inhabited by the Jewish people, who later became known as the Israelites.

The Bible

The collection of canonical books of Judaism and Christianity. The canonicity of each book varies depending on the religious tradition. According to Jewish and Christian beliefs, the Bible spreads the word of God.

Phoenicia’s Main Contributions

The Phoenicians established moral principles based on beliefs about good and evil.

The Alphabet

Around 1200 BC, the Phoenicians created an alphabet of 22 consonants, which evolved into the alphabet used today.

The Invention of Writing

Writing originated from drawings. It began as pictographic writing, where symbols represented objects. It then evolved into phonetic writing, where symbols represented sounds.

Stages of Writing

  1. Pictographic: Simple drawings representing objects.
  2. Ideographic: Association of symbols with broader meanings.
  3. Phonetic: Symbols representing sounds.
  4. Alphabetic: Drawings replaced by more detailed conventional signs.

The first writing systems appeared between the 5th and 4th millennium BC in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.

Egyptian Writing

Hieroglyphics: Symbols closely resembling drawings.

Mesopotamian Writing

Cuneiform: Wedge-shaped characters inscribed on clay tablets.

Phoenician Writing

Alphabet: A blend of Egyptian and Mesopotamian writing systems.

The Roman Republic

A period in Roman history characterized by a republican form of government, lasting from 509 BC (after the expulsion of the last king) to 27 BC (the beginning of the Roman Empire).

Rome’s Main Cultural Contributions

  • Latin language.
  • Roman law.

Greece

The process of unification of different peoples into a single Greek nation.

Earliest Settlers of Greece

  • Achaeans
  • Dorians
  • Ionians
  • Aeolians

Main Religions in Greece

  • Cretan
  • Ionian
  • Mycenaean

Sparta

Form of Government: Monarchy (diarchy) – military autocracy. The government was in the hands of two kings to prevent abuse of power.

Political Organization:

  • Council of Elders (28 members).
  • Council of 5 Ephors (controlled and monitored the state).
  • Apella (popular assembly of citizens over 30 years old).

Social Organization:

  • Spartans: Lived off the produce of the land and the labor of the Helots.
  • Perioeci: Farmers and artisans who lived in the mountains.
  • Helots: Slaves owned by the state.

Athens

First Form of Government: Monarchy

The monarch held supreme authority in military, political, and religious matters.

Social Organization: Social classes based on property ownership:

  • Eupatridae: First settlers with rights in government.
  • Demiurgos: Merchants and artisans.
  • Georgoi: Farmers.

Second Form of Government: Aristocratic Oligarchy

The government was in the hands of the Eupatridae.

Political Organization:

  • Archonship: Replaced the king and consisted of 9 archons.
  • Areopagus: Replaced the council.

Education in Sparta and Athens

Sparta: Focused on military training. Boys were trained from a young age to become warriors and protect the state. The first seven years were spent with the mother, and then they joined the army for training.

Athens: Emphasized intellectual and physical development. Children learned letters and calculations. Character education was based on grammar, reading, and arithmetic. There was a shift in teaching methods over time.