Ancient Civilizations: From Prehistory to the Middle Ages
Prehistoric Societies
The oldest fossils discovered so far, dating back 4.5 million years, were found in Africa. Cultural characteristics of prehistoric societies, prior to the invention of writing, did not emerge simultaneously across all societies. This suggests that some societies were still unfamiliar with writing even as others developed it.
Ancient Civilizations
Examples of ancient civilizations include the Mesopotamian societies, such as the Babylonians, the ancient Egyptians, the ancient Greeks, and the ancient Romans.
The Roman Empire
The Roman Empire, established in the late first century BC, had a long lifespan of approximately five centuries. The Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD (476) at the hands of Germanic tribes.
The Roman Empire did not always encompass the same territory. An empire is a state or city-state (in this case, Rome) that expands and annexes other territories to dominate and exploit them economically. Rome’s expansion was progressive, with territories being annexed gradually.
At its greatest extent, the Roman Empire controlled territories in Europe from the Rhine to the Mediterranean, the Near East (Asia), and North Africa.
The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire)
The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, survived for over a thousand years, until 1453. Its longevity was due to a strong economy, fueled by trade with the Near East, and the emperor’s absolute power in political, military, and religious matters.
The Byzantine economy was based on agriculture, supplemented by small-scale production of textiles, ceramics, and mosaics, as well as trade. The territories under Byzantine rule varied throughout its thousand-year existence.
The Byzantine Empire played a crucial role in preserving ancient Greco-Roman culture, including the Greek language, literature, philosophy, laws, art, and religion.
The Arab Expansion
The Arabs were a people who inhabited the Arabian Peninsula from the first millennium BC. Initially nomadic, they were unified in the 7th century by the Prophet Muhammad, who preached belief in one God, Allah. His teachings gave rise to the religion of Islam, and the Arab people’s beliefs were recorded in a sacred book: the Quran.
Muhammad combined his religious doctrine with a political and military organization, driving the conversion of surrounding tribes to the new faith. This led to a policy of expansion known as the Holy War or Jihad.
By the 12th century, the Arabs had expanded into North Africa, taking Egypt and the North African coast from the Byzantine Empire. To the east, they occupied the Near East, Mesopotamia, and the entire Iranian plateau, reaching the borders of India. In the early 8th century, they entered and dominated the Iberian Peninsula. Consequently, the entire Mediterranean Sea came under Arab control. Today, this same territory, including Spain, comprises countries with Muslim populations and culture.
Muslim culture had a strong influence on the Western world. This is evident in literary works such as One Thousand and One Nights, Aladdin’s Lamp, and Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves. In science, they excelled in chemistry and mathematics; for example, our number system is of Arabic origin. Linguistically, many words we use are derived from Arabic, particularly those starting with the prefix “al,” such as almohada (pillow), alfajor (gingerbread), almendra (almond), and alfiler (pin).
Feudal Society
Historians use the term “feudal society” to refer to the social structure that existed in Western Europe between the 11th and 15th centuries.
Several factors contributed to the organization of this society:
- The death of Charlemagne led to the division of his empire among his children.
- Kings became increasingly weak, delegating power and defensive responsibilities to nobles.
- Nobles gained more power, leading to fragmentation of authority.
- Constant invasions in Europe further weakened central authority.
The Functioning of Political Power
Political power was exercised by lords, who were officials that appropriated taxes and income from their districts, effectively seizing political power.