Ancient Civilizations of the East: A Look at State Formation
Ancient Civilizations of the East: The Concept of State
Ancient Empires of the East: Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia
1. Common Features
- The economy, primarily agricultural, saw significant development in trade and crafts, relying on slave labor.
- The political system was a theocratic monarchy, where the king (or Pharaoh in Egypt) ruled as a god, considered owner of all land, and aided by officials (nobles, scribes).
- Society was hierarchical, with different social groups possessing varying economic power. Slaves and peasants formed the largest, and poorest, group.
- Religion was animistic (personifying natural forces) and polytheistic (belief in many gods), offering religious explanations for seasons and day-night cycles. These religions believed in the soul’s persistence after death.
- Artistic creations, like the pyramids of Egypt, reflect this spiritual concern and the monarchs’ immense power.
2. Mesopotamia: 3000-6th Century BC
Stages: Sumerians, Akkadian Empire, Neo-Sumerian Period, Assyrian Empire, Babylonian Empire
Features:
- Central Branch
- Urban societies: Ur, Eridu, Sumer, Babylon
- Cuneiform writing
- Developed legislation: Code of Hammurabi
- Architecture: Khorsabad palace, ziggurats
2.1 The Sumerians
Around 3000 BC, Sumerians migrated from present-day India or the Caucasus to Mesopotamia, an area with high agricultural potential. They established independent city-states with a shared culture, ruled by kings (“silage,” “lugal,” or “patesi”) who acted as both divine representatives and city rulers. Their centralized power controlled water for agriculture through irrigation networks. Conflicts arose between cities for territorial control.
2.2 The Akkadian Empire
In 2340 BC, Mesopotamian city-states were in constant conflict. Sargon, king of Akkad, exploited this situation, conquering Uruk and establishing the Akkadian Empire.
2.3 The Neo-Sumerian Period
After the Akkadian defeat, Ur dominated and unified the territory, ushering in peace and economic prosperity. Sumerian culture revived, with prominent cities like Lagash, Uruk, and Ur. Queen Gudea of Lagash (2144-2124 BC) rebuilt temples and left behind numerous sculptures.
2.4 The Assyrian Empire
The Assyrians, a nomadic group from northern Mesopotamia (Assyria), focused on trade and established outposts in modern-day Turkey. Exploiting internal conflicts, they expanded into Sumerian territory.
2.5 The Babylonian Empire
Around 2200 BC, groups from desert areas dominated cities in southern Mesopotamia (Isin, Larsa, Babylon). Their kings gradually adopted divine status and Sumerian characteristics.
3. Egypt: 2700-1087 BC
Features:
- Egypt, a “Gift of the Nile”
- Centralized power under the Pharaoh
- Alternating periods of stability and instability
- Religious and funerary art
Historical Phases: Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BC), First Intermediate Period (2200-2052 BC), Middle Kingdom (2052-1786 BC), Second Intermediate Period (1786-1575 BC), New Kingdom (1575-1087 BC), Post-Imperial Era (until 4th century BC, conquest by Alexander the Great), Roman conquest (1st century BC).
3.1 The Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BC)
Around 3100 BC, King Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt, establishing the first dynasty and the capital at Memphis. The Old Kingdom spanned Dynasties III to VI.
3.2 The First Intermediate Period (2200-2052 BC)
Characterized by loss of central power due to internal struggles and the rise of nomes (provincial governors). Egypt divided into northern and southern states.
3.3 The Middle Kingdom (2052-1786 BC)
Theban kings, culminating with Mentuhotep II, reunified Egypt. Nomes were suppressed, borders fortified, trade protected, and control extended to Nubia.
3.4 Second Intermediate Period (1786-1575 BC)
The Hyksos, with superior military technology, invaded and ruled northern Egypt from their capital, Avaris.
3.5 The New Kingdom (1575-1087 BC)
Pharaoh Ahmose expelled the Hyksos and established the New Kingdom with Thebes as the capital. Egypt expanded its borders into parts of Asia and North Africa.
4. Common Features
Polytheistic religion interpreting nature’s cycles. Belief in the afterlife, reflected in tombs and funerary practices. Hieratic, demotic, and hieroglyphic writing.
5. Analysis of the Pyramids
5.1 Material Analysis
Pyramids are architectural works made of stone blocks (sillars) quarried and worked manually. A stone cladding originally covered the entire structure.
5.2 Formal Analysis
The pyramid’s shape, with four inclined planes converging at a vertex, creates an upward, vertical emphasis, symbolizing a transition between earth and sky. Their immense size reflects the time and effort invested in their construction.
5.3 Meaningful Analysis
Pyramids have symbolic meaning, their form and grandeur indicating their religious purpose and the pharaoh’s power.
6. Detailed Description: The Great Pyramids of Egypt
Built during the Old Kingdom’s third millennium, the Great Pyramids are named after the pharaohs who commissioned them: Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.
6.1 Characteristics of Ancient Egyptian Architecture
- Use of stone: Durable material suited to Egypt’s arid climate.
- Lintel architecture: Use of horizontal beams and flat elements, creating a monumental and solemn effect.
- Mammoth scale: Reflects the pharaoh’s power.
- Religious character: Tombs and temples reflect the belief in the afterlife.
6.2 Structure of the Pyramid
Part of a larger funerary complex, the pyramid served as the pharaoh’s burial place. After mummification, the pharaoh’s body was transported via the Nile to the pyramid. A causeway led to the pyramid, where ceremonies took place. The pyramid contained chambers for offerings and the pharaoh’s burial, with fake entrances to deter robbers. The burial chamber was underground.
6.3 Architectural Constructions in Egypt
6.3.1 Burials: Mastabas (truncated pyramids for nobles), Step Pyramid (superimposed mastabas), Great Pyramids (pharaohs’ tombs), Hypogea (rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings, Queens, and Nobles).
6.3.2 Temples: Great Temples (e.g., Luxor, Karnak) with avenues of sphinxes, obelisks, pylons, and sanctuaries. Speos (rock-cut temples, e.g., Hatshepsut, Ramses II, Nefertari).
6.4 Significant Features of Ancient Egyptian Civilization
- Theocratic political system: Pharaoh as divine ruler.
- Hierarchical society: Pharaoh at the top, followed by priests, nobles, officials, merchants, craftsmen, peasants, and slaves.
- Polytheistic and animistic religion: Belief in afterlife and judgment of the soul.
- Scientific knowledge: Advanced understanding of astronomy, medicine, and mummification.
Conclusion: The pyramids stand as testaments to the power and ingenuity of Ancient Egypt, preserving the legacy of the pharaohs for millennia.