Ancient Civilizations of the East: Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Persia
Ancient Civilizations of the East: The Concept of State
The Monarchies of Divine Origin
Human groups settled in the present territories of Egypt, Iran, and Iraq, forming powerful states that dominated vast areas. These empires—Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia—shared several characteristics:
- Economy: Predominantly agricultural, based on slave labor.
- Political System: Theocratic monarchy. The king (or Pharaoh in Egypt) ruled as a god, considered the owner of the entire territory, and aided by collaborators (nobles, scribes, etc.).
- Society: Hierarchical, with social groups possessing different economic power. The largest group consisted of impoverished slaves and peasants.
- Religion: Animistic and polytheistic, believing in the soul’s existence and its persistence after death.
- Art: Artistic creations, such as the pyramids of Egypt, testified to this spiritual concern and reflected the monarch’s immense power.
Mesopotamia
The name Mesopotamia means “between rivers,” referring to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers where several groups of people established themselves. Mesopotamian history can be divided into several stages:
1. The Sumerians
Around 3000 BC, the Sumerians settled in city-states. Major Sumerian cities included Ur, Eridu, and Lagash. Sumerian society revolved around the king. One of their greatest contributions was writing. They also made significant discoveries in arithmetic. Their religion and politics involved the deification of natural forces and the consecration of elements within their agricultural-pastoral society. The Sumerians had over three thousand gods, including An (god of the sky and father of the gods), Enlil (lord of the wind who determined human destiny), and Ea (lord of water and benefactor of mankind).
Sumerian Art
Art was considered a great “science” alongside writing and irrigation farming techniques.
Architecture
Sumerians used clay as a foundation and adobe brick as a building element. Temples consisted of a three-story rectangular platform that rose in staggered levels. An example is the White Temple of Uruk (2800-2600 BC). Oval plant churches, like the one in Kafadyi City, also appeared.
Sculpture
“Tablets” are well-known reliefs with a central hole and sculptures arranged in horizontal bands, such as the tablet of Ur-nina, patesi of Lagash. “Stelae” are rectangular plates, rounded at the top, depicting historical events like wars, exemplified by the “Stele of the Vultures.”
Sumptuary Arts
This term refers to artistic objects made with precious or semi-precious materials (gold, silver, ivory, lapis lazuli, etc.). The Standard of Ur is a renowned example.
2. The Akkadian Empire
In 2340 BC, Mesopotamia experienced continuous military conflicts between Sumerian city-states and a revolt of priests against the king of Uruk, Lugalzagesi. Sargon conquered Lugalzagesi and founded the city of Akkad.
Akkadian Art
The Akkadians’ military nature influenced their art, while still incorporating Sumerian characteristics. They adopted Sumerian architectural types. The Stela of Naran-Sin exemplifies their sculpture.
3. The Neo-Sumerian Period
After the Akkadians’ defeat, the city of Ur dominated and unified the territory, ushering in a period of peace, economic prosperity, and a revival of Sumerian culture, particularly in cities like Lagash, Uruk, and Ur. By the 20th-19th centuries BC, struggles between kings and threats from foreign peoples divided the territory into two parts: the north (where the Assyrian Empire developed) and the south (where Babylon gained control).
Art of the Neo-Sumerian Period
Architecture
The Ziggurat, a temple built on a platform with ramps and stairs, reaching up to seven stories high, became a prominent architectural form. Its surface tapered in height and was topped with a small temple observatory for priests to observe the stars.
Sculpture
Over thirty preserved sculptures of King Gudea of Lagash represent the finest examples of this period’s sculpture. They are made of brilliant blue or black diorite and dolerite stone.
4. The Assyrian Empire
The Assyrians, a nomadic group, spread across Assyria in northern Mesopotamia. They engaged in trade and established trading enclaves in parts of modern Turkey. Exploiting internal conflicts, they infiltrated the Sumerians’ northern territory, attempted to conquer Egypt, and briefly ruled as kings of Babylon. Notable Assyrian kings include Sargon, Naram-Sin (different from the Akkadian king), Shalmaneser, Ashurnasirpal II, and Assurbanipal. In the 7th century BC, Cyaxares, king of the Medes, sacked the Assyrian capital.
Characteristics of the Assyrian Empire
Monarchy
The king, considered the representative of the god Assur, appointed court officials like the Grand Vizier, supreme judge, general of the army, Great Intendant, Herald of the Palace, and Butler. Treated as a god, the king was constantly protected by servants and the military. Subjects bowed and kissed the ground before him.
Administration
The Assyrians were skilled warriors and traders.
Society
Assyrian society was divided into two main groups: the free (“awilu”) and the slaves (“Ardani”).
Economy
Assyrians cultivated cereals, sesame seeds, vines, and garden products. Large and medium-sized lands were worked by free laborers or slaves.
Religion
The gods, led by Assur, were represented in human form (anthropomorphic). Temples dedicated to Ashur, his wife Ishtar, Enlil (god of the land), Inurta (god of thunder and storm), and Sin (moon god) were built in various cities.
Assyrian Art
The Assyrians, a conquering people who were later subjugated by the Babylonians and then regained independence, maintained a warrior spirit that permeated their art.
Architecture
The city of Khorsabad, built by Sargon the Great, is a significant example of Assyrian architecture.
Sculpture
The most important surviving works of Assyrian sculpture come from the decoration of the great palaces.
5. The Babylonian Empire
Around 2200 BC, following Sumerian setbacks and the decline of the kingdom of Ur, nomadic groups from desert areas dominated cities in southern Mesopotamia (Isin, Larsa, Babylon, etc.), settling in and adopting Sumerian characteristics. Their kings gradually assumed divine status. In the early 19th century BC, a Babylonian dynasty established itself, and for three centuries, Babylon became the political and cultural center. King Hammurabi was a prominent figure. He ascended the throne between the ages of 25 and 30 and, through military conquest and treaties, unified Mesopotamia. He was called “King of Sumer and Akkad” and “King of the Four Regions,” symbolizing his dominion over the entire territory from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf.
Features of the Babylonian Empire
Politics
Initially, city-states ruled by local kings existed until Hammurabi unified the territory. The empire was divided into districts or provinces administered by governors appointed by the king. Following the ancient political model, the king represented the god Marduk and was called “Great King.”
Society
Based on laws, particularly Hammurabi’s Code, we know there were three classes of people: awilium (free), mushkenum (lower class), and wardum (slaves).
Economy
The king’s palace and temples controlled all economic sectors as major landowners. They cultivated barley, wheat, sesame, and date palms. Metal crafts, jewelry, and textiles were highly valued, as was trade. This encouraged the development of sophisticated economic practices like loans and money orders.
Law
Law was highly developed, evidenced by clay tablets or hard stone stelae inscribed with legal codes.
Religion
Although polytheistic (with almost 4000 known gods), the Babylonians were ruled by Marduk, the god of Babylon. The “Epic of Creation” portrays him as the protector god of humans. He was credited with healing powers and the ability to determine human fate. A grand temple dedicated to him was built in Babylon, housing the statue of his wife, the goddess Zapanitu.
Science and Technology
Mathematical knowledge was emphasized. They used the four basic arithmetic operations, as well as calculations with powers, radicals, and equations of different degrees.
Babylonian Art
Architecture
The construction of Babylon, particularly the renovations carried out by Nebuchadnezzar II in the 6th century BC, was a major achievement.
Sculpture
Sculptures from this period primarily decorated the Royal Palace and other buildings in Babylon. Although not created in Babylon but in Anatolia, the massive basalt sculpture known as the “Lion of Babylon” is noteworthy.
Egypt
1. The Gift of the Nile
Egypt’s wealth stemmed from the Nile River, which stretches over 1200 miles. Due to the climate, rains caused the Nile to overflow, flooding the fields and providing essential moisture for crops and vegetable fibers used to make textiles like linen. The Nile also served as a vital communication and trade route. Surrounded by deserts, Egypt’s arable and densely populated land was limited to the areas flooded by the river. This gave the country an elongated shape centered around the Nile, with two distinct parts: the valley or south (Upper Egypt) and the delta (Lower Egypt), where the river branches out and flows into the Mediterranean.
2. Unification and Political Structure
By the late 4th millennium BC, Upper and Lower Egypt were unified, establishing a strong political structure with power concentrated in the Pharaoh, who ruled from the capital.
3. Periods of Stability and Instability
Ancient Egyptian history alternated between periods of stability, where powerful pharaohs controlled the population, and periods of instability caused by internal rebellions and foreign invasions that exploited weaknesses to seize power.
4. Religious and Funerary Art
Egyptian art was primarily religious and funerary. Pharaohs’ tombs and temples became the most representative examples, highlighting Egyptian spirituality and beliefs.
The Historical Phases of Egypt
Egypt’s nearly three-thousand-year history can be divided into five stages:
- The Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BC)
- The First Intermediate Period (2200-2052 BC)
- The Middle Kingdom (2052-1786 BC)
- The Second Intermediate Period (1786-1575 BC)
- The New Kingdom (1575-1087 BC)
Following the New Kingdom was the post-imperial era, lasting until the 4th century BC when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt. This could be extended to the final period when Rome conquered Egypt in the 1st century BC after Cleopatra’s death.
1. The Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BC)
Around 3100 BC, a pivotal event occurred: the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under King Menes, who founded the first dynasty and established the capital at Memphis.
Features of the Old Kingdom
- Pharaoh as a God: The Pharaoh was considered a god, the owner of all land in Egypt, which he granted to priests, soldiers, etc. This sacred status, along with the Nile’s regular flooding, ensured the country’s wealth, order, and peace.
- Administration: The country was divided into territorial units called “nomes,” governed by officials appointed by the Pharaoh.
- Royal Court: A court headed by the vizier, who managed state affairs on behalf of the Pharaoh, was established.
- Tombs: The grand tombs built during this period reflected the Pharaohs’ immense power. Notable examples include the Step Pyramid of Djoser, built by Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty, and the Great Pyramids of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.
2. The First Intermediate Period (2200-2052 BC)
This period saw the loss of central power due to struggles within the royal family and among the nomes. The country split into two states: a northern state with its capital at Heracleopolis and a southern state with its capital at Thebes.
3. The Middle Kingdom (2052-1768 BC)
The Theban kings, starting with Mentuhotep II, gradually gained control over all of Egypt, reunifying the territory. The period ended with the fragmentation of central power due to the growing influence of nobles and foreign invasions.
4. The Second Intermediate Period (1786-1575 BC)
The Hyksos, a group with superior military technology like horse-drawn chariots and archers, dominated northern Egypt, leading to the loss of central power and establishing their capital at Avaris in the delta.
5. The New Kingdom (1575-1087 BC)
Pharaoh Ahmose expelled the Hyksos and founded the New Kingdom, establishing a new capital at Thebes. During this time, Egypt expanded its borders, reaching parts of Asia and North Africa (Phoenicia). Famous kings of this period include:
- Queen Hatshepsut: Her reign was a period of peace, marked by military expeditions and the construction of her grand temple at Deir el-Bahari.
- Pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV): He implemented religious and administrative reforms. His wife, Queen Nefertiti, is depicted in sculptures that reflect the spiritual and refined changes he introduced.
- Tutankhamun: A pharaoh of the 18th dynasty.
- Ramesses II: He represented the military power of this new dynasty of pharaohs, undertaking major construction projects, including the temple of Abu Simbel, the reconstruction of Thebes, and the construction of the temple of Amun in that city.
During the first millennium BC, Egypt’s political dominance ended with conquests by the Assyrians (under Ashurbanipal in the 7th century BC), the Greeks (under Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC), and the Romans (in the 1st century BC).
Egyptian Religion
The Egyptians practiced a polytheistic religion that permeated all aspects of their lives. Gods were represented in human or animal form, and several major deities existed. Ptah was considered the creator of the world, Horus (often depicted as a hawk) was the sky god, and Ra was the sun god and a representation of human strength. Egyptians believed humans were composed of three parts: the body (material part), the soul (allowing movement and feeling), and the spirit (which granted intelligence and immortality).
Egyptian Writing
Egyptians had several writing systems: hieratic, demotic, and hieroglyphics. Hieroglyphics are found in the “Books of the Dead,” papyrus scrolls placed with mummified bodies to guide them through the resurrection process.
Egyptian Temples and Tombs
Construction and Architecture
- Material: Stone quarried and shaped to form solid walls. The Pharaoh’s involvement in construction demonstrated his power.
- Architecture: Post and lintel construction with straight coverings.
- Colossal Scale: Egyptian architecture is characterized by its monumental scale, with pyramids reaching over two hundred feet high.
Egyptian Temples
Temples, especially those dedicated to Ra, were significant structures. The best-preserved and architecturally impressive temples date back to the New Kingdom (19th and 20th dynasties).
1. The Great Temples
Located in the Valley of the Kings, these temples could stretch for miles and served a dual purpose: worshiping the statues of the gods and hosting grand ceremonies like coronations. Walls and columns were made of stone blocks, topped with capitals featuring plant forms (lotus flowers, palm, or papyrus) or the head of Hathor, the goddess of fertility. The temples consisted of several parts:
- Avenue of the Sphinxes
- Esplanade of the Obelisks
- Pylons
- Hypostyle Hall
- Sanctuary (Holy of Holies)
Great temples also had areas for housing priests, storing offerings, and managing temple lands and taxes. Only the faithful could enter up to the pylons, while nobles and priests could access the Hypostyle Hall. Examples include:
- Temple of Amun at Luxor
- Temple of Amun at Karnak
2. Rock-Cut Temples
These temples were carved into rock, featuring a facade and serving a funerary purpose. The interior consisted of three chambers arranged in decreasing height, size, and lighting. Examples include:
- Temple of Queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari (a semi-speos)
- Great Temple of Abu Simbel (built by Ramesses II)
- Small Temple of Abu Simbel (dedicated to Nefertari, Ramesses II’s wife)
Egyptian Tombs
Three main types of tombs existed: mastabas, pyramids, and hypogea.
1. Mastabas
These were flat-roofed rectangular structures with sloping sides, resembling truncated pyramids. They consisted of:
- Funeral chapel
- Shaft or gallery
- Subterranean chamber
Mastabas were built alongside each other, forming necropolises, such as the one at Giza.
2. Pyramids
Pyramids represent a remarkable achievement of Egyptian architecture and symbolize the Pharaohs’ immense power. In the Old Kingdom’s 3rd dynasty, Pharaoh Djoser commissioned his architect Imhotep to build the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. The Great Pyramids are named after the pharaohs who ordered their construction in the 4th dynasty: Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Built along the Nile, pyramids housed several chambers, including a chapel and a burial chamber, where the Pharaoh’s body was placed after his death.
3. Hypogea
During the Middle and New Kingdoms, a new type of burial emerged: hypogea. These tombs were entirely excavated into rock and used by pharaohs, nobles, and important priests. Lacking an exterior facade, they were difficult to locate, deterring looting. The Valley of the Kings, outside Thebes, contains many examples of hypogea. This area, with its numerous temples and tombs, was considered a sacred place.