Ancient Egypt: Nile, Desert, and Society
Egypt, the Nile, and the Desert
Egypt’s geographical location offers two advantages:
- The desert separates it from enemies.
- The Nile provides flood irrigation and fertilization, enabling farmland.
In the 5th and 4th millennia BC, climate changes and water shortages led tribes to the Nile’s banks.
The Flooding of the Nile
From June to September, the Nile rises due to spring rains at its source, flooding the riverbanks. The water recedes in September, leaving behind fertile black silt. The flooding posed challenges for agriculture, as lands near the river were parched and dry, while wetlands harbored mosquitoes, crocodiles, and hippos.
Water Use
Egyptians hunted ducks, birds, and fish. They controlled floods for agriculture, building dams and canals to store and distribute water, increasing arable land and production. They developed a flood calendar, accounting systems, and hydraulic construction techniques. Temples served as centers for astronomical observations and mathematical calculations. The year was 365 days, divided into 24 periods (hours). The Nile became a major communication route, with cities like Memphis and Thebes emerging along its banks.
Egyptian Society
Around 3000 BC, Pharaoh Narmer unified Upper and Lower Egypt, initiating dynasties that lasted over 2500 years.
The Power of the Pharaoh
The Pharaoh held absolute power, owning all lands, symbolizing the country, and considered a god. They ensured order, justice, and defense against enemies. They controlled irrigation works and foreign trade. The kingdom was managed by governors and scribes who administered the territory and enforced the Pharaoh’s orders. The military was another source of the Pharaoh’s power.
Privileged Classes
The nobility possessed vast lands and wealth, granted by the Pharaoh for loyalty or service. Priests conducted religious rituals, practiced science, mastered hieroglyphic writing, and managed temple lands. Scribes knew calculation, Egyptian script, and managed taxes, construction, irrigation, and the army.
Egyptian Writing: Around 3150 BC, the first texts appeared. Unlike the Mesopotamians’ cuneiform, Egyptians developed complex and artistic hieroglyphics for temples and tombs.
Gods, Temples, and Tombs
Gods and Temples of Egypt
Egyptian religion was polytheistic, with zoomorphic deities in older temples. Animals like crocodiles (Nile floods), ibis (snake removal), and jackals (riverbank cleanliness) were revered. Each town had its gods, with Ra, Amon, Osiris, Isis, Horus, and Thoth being widely worshiped. People used amulets for protection. Gods resided in temples built by Pharaohs, accessible only to priests and royalty. Statues were seen in processions and festivals.
Tombs for Immortality
Humans were composed of a body and soul (ka). After death, the ka went to the afterlife, requiring the body to remain intact. Families mummified the deceased. Initially, only Pharaohs were considered immortal. Tombs evolved from simple mastabas to pyramids (Cheops, Chephren, Micerinos at Giza). Later, Pharaohs preferred hypogea (underground chambers) near Thebes to prevent looting.